* High R-value per inch – useful where space is tight or cramped, such as cathedral ceiling.

* Protect foundation and damp-proofing during backfilling (and, of course, insulate foundation).

* All are lightweight and strong – although EPS can be crumbly.

* Add to structural strength of walls.

* Provide acoustic insulation as well as thermal.

* Most are easily cut with utility knives.

* All are water resistant, some more so than others (but none should face prolonged exposure to water).

* Will not rot.

* XPS type is highly resistant to air infiltration. Can be virtually airtight if installed without gaps between adjacent panels, with seams taped.

* Reduce heat conduction through the wall frame when used as sheathing.

* Rigid panels with a radiant heat barrier facing foil will significantly improve the insulating properties by reflecting infrared solar energy before penetrating the wall or ceiling.

* Some types use some recycled content.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Rigid panel, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Solar ovens are just one part of the alternative energy picture, but one that is accessible to a great majority of people. A reliable solar oven can be built from everyday materials in just a few hours or purchased ready-made.

Solar ovens can be used to prepare anything that can be made in a conventional oven or stove& — from baked bread to steamed vegetables to roasted meat. Since solar ovens are placed outside, they do not contribute unwanted heat inside houses. Nearly three-quarters of US households prepare at least one hot meal per day; one-third prepare two or more. Many of these meals could be made in a less fuel-intensive way using a solar oven, although people living in apartments or townhomes have little or no outside space to use a solar coooker.

The indoor concentration of health-damaging pollutants from a typical wood-fired cooking stove creates carbon monoxide and other noxious fumes at anywhere between seven and 500 times over the allowable limits.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Solar cooker, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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The company uses copper indium gallium diselenide—which achieves up to 19.9% efficiency in laboratory samples—to build their thin film solar cells. The company’s technology gained early industry recognition with the presentation of a Small Times Magazine award at a leading nanotech business event in 2005. Nanosolar’s solar cells have been verified by NREL to be as efficient as 14.6% in 2006 and 15.3% in 2009.

Technical details of Nanosolar’s new manufacturing techniques have been disclosed in patent applications. Some information about their process has become available in a Scientific American article (in German).

These details involve a semiconductor ink that it claims will enable it to produce solar cells with a basic printing process, rather than using slow and expensive high-vacuum based thin-film deposition processes. The ink is deposited on a flexible substrate (the “paper”), and then nanocomponents in the ink align themselves properly via molecular self-assembly. In September 2009, Nanosolar announced the launch of production at a rate of 640 MW annually; however, ramp-up to volume production after the announcement took an additional six months, limiting actual production in 2009 to an estimated 4 MW, and as of August 2010 the plant is still ramping up toward its announced capacity. Since the hiring of new CEO Geoff Tate, the company has declined to discuss its actual manufacturing capacity, but has said that its target for 2010 is to ship panels for “several … megawatt-size projects” and “[build] panels for projects that have been identified that can help build the case for an operating history and bankability in 2011.” Efficiencies for current production panels are said to be 8-9%, with plans to submit panels with 10-11% efficiency for IEC certification in the fall of 2010.

Nanosolar has developed a suite of in-house capabilities for creating nanostructured components based on various patented and patent-pending techniques. It uses nanostructured components as the basis for creating printable semiconductors, printable transparent electrodes, novel forms of advanced nanocomposite solar-cell design and powerful new forms of barrier films.

According to the company, “leveraging recent science advances in nanostructured materials, Nanosolar has developed a proprietary ink that makes it possible to simply print the semiconductor of a high-performance solar cell. This ink is based on Nanosolar developing various proprietary forms of nanoparticles and associated organic dispersion chemistry and processing techniques suitable for delivering a semiconductor of high electronic quality.”

Two advantages over earlier technologies is that a printing process is quick and also makes it easy to deposit a uniform layer of the ink, resulting in a layer with the correct ratio of elements everywhere on the substrate. Also, the ink is printed only where needed, so there is less waste of material. Last, the substrate material on which the ink is printed is much more conductive and less expensive than the stainless steel substrates that are often used in thin-film solar panels.[http://www.nanosolar.com]

These solar cells successfully blend the needs for efficiency, low cost, and longevity and will be easy to install due to their flexibility and light weight. Estimates by Nanosolar of the cost of these cells fall roughly between 1/10th and 1/5th the industry standard per kilowatt.

The company implies that their solar cells can last more than 25 years by saying they “achieve a durability compatible with our 25-year warranty.” They recently commissioned a study by Black and Veatch that finds their 25-year warranty to be compatible with their module design.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Nanosolar, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Hydrothermal energy is by far the densest and most highly concentrated natural source. Its producible energy content based on computer modeling is estimated to be about 3.3 x 106 more intense than raw solar radiation, and it is available 24 hours a day. By contrast, both wind and solar suffer from low density and intermittent operation.

Hydrothermal energy offers the potential of replacing existing power plants, something that other renewable sources can not promise.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Marshall hydrothermal recovery system, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Mechanical

Electric motors are mechanically very simple.

Electric motors often achieve 90% energy conversion efficiency over the full range of speeds and power output and can be precisely controlled. They can also be combined with regenerative braking systems that have the ability to convert movement energy back into stored electricity. This can be used to reduce the wear on brake systems (and consequent brake pad dust) and reduce the total energy requirement of a trip. Regenerative braking is especially effective for start-and-stop city use.

They can be finely controlled and provide high torque from rest, unlike internal combustion engines, and do not need multiple gears to match power curves. This removes the need for gearboxes and torque converters.

Electric vehicles provide quiet and smooth operation and consequently have less noise and vibration than internal combustion engines. While this is a desirable attribute, it has also evoked concern that the absence of the usual sounds of an approaching vehicle poses a danger to blind, elderly and very young pedestrians. To mitigate this situation, automakers and individual companies are developing systems that produce warning sounds when electric vehicles are moving slowly, up to a speed when normal motion and rotation (road, suspension, electric motor, etc.) noises become audible.

Environmental

Electric vehicles release almost no air pollutants at the place where they are operated. In addition, it is generally easier to build pollution control systems into centralised power stations than retrofit enormous numbers of cars.

Electric vehicles typically have less noise pollution than an internal combustion engine vehicle, whether it is at rest or in motion. Electric vehicles emit no tailpipe CO2 or pollutants such as NOx, NMHC, CO and PM at the point of use..

Electric motors don’t require oxygen, unlike internal combustion engines; this is useful for submarines.

Energy resilience

Electricity is a form of energy that remains within the country or region where it was produced and can be multi-sourced. As a result it gives the greatest degree of energy resilience.

Energy efficiency

Electric vehicle ‘tank-to-wheels’ efficiency is about a factor of 3 higher than internal combustion engine vehicles.

Cost of recharge

The GM Volt will cost “less than purchasing a cup of your favorite coffee” to recharge. The Volt should cost less than 2 cents per mile to drive on electricity, compared with 12 cents a mile on gasoline at a price of $3.60 a gallon. This means a trip from Los Angeles to New York would cost $56 on electricity, and $336 with gasoline. This would be the equivalent to paying 60 cents a gallon of gas.

Stabilization of the grid

Since electric vehicles can be plugged into the electric grid when not in use, there is a potential for battery powered vehicles to even out the demand for electricity by feeding electricity ”into” the grid from their batteries during peak use periods (such as midafternoon air conditioning use) while doing most of their charging at night, when there is unused generating capacity. This Vehicle to Grid (V2G) connection has the potential to reduce the need for new power plants.

Furthermore, our current electricity infrastructure may need to cope with increasing shares of variable-output power sources such as windmills and PV solar panels. This variability could be addressed by adjusting the speed at which EV batteries are charged, or possibly even discharged.

Some concepts see battery exchanges and battery charging stations, much like gas/petrol stations today. Clearly these will require enormous storage and charging potentials, which could be manipulated to vary the rate of charging, and to output power during shortage periods, much as diesel generators are used for short periods to stabilize some national grids.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Electric vehicle, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Brand philosophy and values

Just like his signature perfumes Angel, Alien and A*Men, Thierry Mugler fragrances are often designed without thought to current trends and around imaginary and dreamlike stories. The brand looks to create fragrances which express both the extravagance and emotion of Thierry Mugler’s style, which aspire to surprise but are at the same time careful to maintain a privileged relationship with Mugler fans.

Fragrance spring

Created soon after the launch of Angel, the “Source” of Angel perfume and now Alien, available wherever Thierry Mugler products are sold, is a way of returning to the secular tradition of perfume fountains. This also enables consumers to keep the same bottle. “Refilling” adds an environmentally-conscious and economical dimension to the brand.

Thierry Mugler fragrance workshops

In 2005, Thierry Mugler launched the “Thierry Mugler Perfume Workshops” which are open to the general public and lead by specialists of the perfumery and oenology world. The goal of these workshops is to convey the art and know-how of the industry along with the craftsmanship of making perfume.

The major Thierry Mugler fragrances

Angel, a peerless classic

Thierry Mugler’s first perfume appeared in 1992, inspired by his childhood memories. Angel opened a new olfactory trend with its combination of praline and chocolate-derived sweetness mixed with a strong accent of patchouli. Angel was the first oriental gourmand perfume and comes in an unprecedented color for a women’s fragrance: blue.

The Angel bottle, a complicated design in the shape of a faceted star, was created by the Brosse Master Glassmakers. Today, more than thirteen engraved and numbered Limited Edition stars have been successively created for several holiday seasons.

Other perfumes have been developed to enrich the brand’s fragrance universe, including three major fragrances: A*Men, Mugler Cologne and Alien.

1996 : A*Men, for men

With A*Men, man becomes a hero. Like diving into man’s most intimate thoughts, the A*Men fragrance stylishly tells the story of a man who recognizes, deep inside himself, the victorious hero he always imagined himself to be.

A*Men is a spicy, oriental woody perfume, both intense and full of charisma. It is experienced in two contrasting dimensions. The first dimension, offered by a woody oriental note, suggests strength and virility. This is mingled with patchouli and vanilla. The other “spicy” dimension blends coffee with an accent of rich tar. This aspect of the fragrance is what gives it its originality and character.

The A*Men bottle was inspired by the anatomical fuselage of a masculine accessory: a curved and graded flask to match a virile grip, a fusion of technology and classicism. Two materials share in the composition of the flask: silver metal (zamak alloy) and black rubber, from which emerges the brand’s symbol of the asymmetrical blue star.

2001 : Mugler Cologne

Mugler Cologne embodies a mysterious sensual freshness…For all those who reject even the idea of a perfume, Thierry Mugler designed a kind of universal and sensual freshness, a promise of energy and vitality. Mugler Cologne is a unisex fragrance, meant for both men and women.

This citrus-y and sensual fragrance is based on a strong dose of white musk, heightened with the scent of natural citrus and a mysterious “S” (for “secret”) note, the olfactory backbone of the fragrance.

The Mugler Cologne bottle is an energetic green: its lines transfigure light into a beam of phosphorescent green.

2005 : Alien

The 21st century brought Alien, the second major Thierry Mugler fragrance, inspired by a solar world, filled with hope, serenity and light.

An amber-woody-floral creation, in three revelations. The first comes with a light-filled “sunflower” note, infused with sambac jasmine. This is the fragrance’s nod to ultra-femininity. Second revelation: the appearance of a bewitching woody note which provokes a certain mystery, cashmeran wood. The third revelation is brought about by white amber which reveals the fragrance’s comforting effect, a feeling of well-being. This unique fusion creates a radiant, vibrant and mysterious fragrance.

The Alien bottle is inspired by a sacred stone, charged with intense energy and cut like an amethyst and gold jewel.

Other Thierry Mugler creations

In 2006, Thierry Mugler completed an unprecedented project for the launch of Tom Tykwer’s film “Perfume”: the design of an olfactory interpretation of Patrick Süskind’s literary masterpiece. In collaboration with the IFF company, Thierry Mugler created a box set of fifteen compositions granting access to the olfactory emotions contained in this extraordinary story. The project was an emotional labor, situated between fantasy and reality and which gave homage to Süskind’s piece of literature. 300 box sets, available only by subscription, were purchased by perfume aficionados.

In 2007, “La Part des Anges” was born of the meeting of two luxury universes: Haute Parfumerie and luxury Spirits. In collaboration with the Cognac Rémy Martin house, Mugler revisited a traditional know-how and experimented with the extract of his Angel fragrance. A never-before-performed experiment was conducted leaving Angel extract to macerate in wild cherry casks in order to obtain an even subtler fragrance. 4700 examples were offered for sale.

In 2008, the brand launched Thierry Mugler Beauty, a high-end line of cosmetics. The line was designed around the concept of metamorphosis, and seeks to marry both “mastery” and “pleasure” to enable every woman to create her own expertly-achieved makeup while enjoying the process and highlighting her advantages.

“Luxury is the privilege of those who know how to put their life on stage.” “It’s the freedom to be different, the pleasure of making oneself known without taking off a mask.” Thierry Mugler

That same year, still following the metamorphosis theme, Mugler launched Mirror, Mirror, a collection of five unusual fragrances, created as “perfume-trickery” to “enhance one’s presence”. Giving free rein to his or her imagination, each Perfumer interpreted the idea of metamorphosis in each creation by integrating unprecedented ingredients, new materials and daring unexpected olfactory pairings. Like imaginary mirrors, the idea was that these fragrances would elicit singular emotions. This “niche line” is available in a highly selective manner in only 200 sales points across the world.

In 2009, Thierry Mugler repeated the mysterious alchemy experiment between spirits and perfume by aging all three of his creations, Angel, Alien and A*Men in wooden casks. Three limited editions combining the know-how of Master Agers and Perfumers to create “Perfume Liqueurs”, achieved through a patented production method. Just like prestigious vintages, these perfumes are conserved in exceptional, limited edition bottles.

Finally, on March 8, 2010, Thierry Mugler launched the site womanity.com, a virtual space for expression and exchange on feminine identity and which elicits visitors to share their vision on what it means to be a woman today. Web users can give their perspective, share their experiences, express their creativity…and above all have fun, thanks to inspiring, meaningful, humorous and even provocative content.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Thierry Mugler, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Anatomy

Human body types vary substantially. Although body size is largely determined by genes, it is also significantly influenced by environmental factors such as diet and exercise. The average height of an adult human is about 1.5 to 1.8 m (5 to 6& feet) tall, although this varies significantly from place to place. The average mass of an adult human is 54–64& kg (120–140& lbs) for females and 76–83& kg (168–183& lbs) for males. Weight can also vary greatly (e.g. obesity). Unlike most other primates, humans are capable of fully bipedal locomotion, thus leaving their arms available for manipulating objects using their hands, aided especially by opposable thumbs.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Human, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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”Ground waves” refer to the propagation of radio waves close to or at the surface of the Earth. These ”surface waves” are also known loosely as Norton surface waves, Zenneck waves, Sommerfeld waves, or gliding waves.

Radio propagation

Lower frequencies, especially AM broadcasts in the mediumwave (sometimes called “medium frequency”) and long wave bands (and other types of radio frequencies below that), travel efficiently as a surface wave. This is because they are more efficiently diffracted by the figure of the Earth due to their low frequencies. Ionospheric reflection is taken into consideration as well. The ionosphere reflects frequencies in a certain band, which often changes due to solar conditions. The Earth has one refractive index and the atmosphere has another, thus constituting an interface that supports the surface wave transmission.

Conductivity of the surface affects the propagation of ground waves, with more conductive surfaces such as water providing better propagation. Increasing the conductivity in a surface results in less dissipation. The refractive indices are subject to spatial and temporal changes. Since the ground is not a perfect electrical conductor, ground waves are attenuated as they follow the earth’s surface.

Most long-distance LF “longwave” radio communication (between 30& kHz and 300& kHz) is a result of groundwave propagation. Mediumwave radio transmissions (frequencies between 300& kHz and 3000& kHz) have the property of following the curvature of the earth (the groundwave) in the majority of occurrences. At low frequencies, ground losses are low and become lower at lower frequencies. The VLF and LF frequencies are mostly used for military communications, especially with ships and submarines.

Surface waves have been used in over-the-horizon radar. In the development of radio, surface waves were used extensively. Early commercial and professional radio services relied exclusively on long wave, low frequencies and ground-wave propagation. To prevent interference with these services, amateur and experimental transmitters were restricted to the higher (HF) frequencies, felt to be useless since their ground-wave range was limited. Upon discovery of the other propagation modes possible at medium wave and short wave frequencies, the advantages of HF for commercial and military purposes became apparent. Amateur experimentation was then confined only to authorized frequencies in the range.

Mediumwave and shortwave reflect off the ionosphere at night, which is known as skywave. During daylight hours, the lower “D” layer of the ionosphere forms and absorbs lower frequency energy. This prevents skywave propagation from being very effective on mediumwave frequencies in daylight hours. At night, when the “D” layer dissipates, mediumwave transmissions travel better by skywave. Ground waves ”do not” include ionospheric and tropospheric waves.

Microwave field theory

Within microwave field theory, the refractive index of many cavities constitute an interface that supports “surface wave transmission”. Surface waves have been studied as part of transmission lines and some may be considered as single-wire transmission line.

Characteristics and utilizations of the electrical surface wave phenomena include:

*The field components of the wave diminish with distance from the interface.

*Optical energy is not converted from the surface wave field to another form of energy and the wave does not have a component directed normal to the interface surface.

*In optical fiber transmission, evanescent waves are surface waves.

* In coaxial cable in addition to the TEM mode there also exists a transverse-magnetic [http://www.corridor.biz/FullArticle.pdf (TM) mode] which propagates as a surface wave in the region around the central conductor. For coax of common impedance this mode is effectively suppressed but in high impedance coax and on a single central conductor without any outer shield, low attenuation and very broadband propagation is supported. Transmission line operating in this mode is called E-Line.

==External articles, further readings, and references

Citations

Web sites

* Eric W. Weisstein, et al., “”[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/SurfaceWave.html Surface Wave]””, Eric Weisstein’s World of Physics, 2006.

* “”[http://www.tpub.com/content/neets/14182/css/14182_76.htm Surface waves]””. Integrated Publishing (tpub.com).

* Brett Ketter, “”[http://www.uwm.edu/~bketter/Research/Surface_Theory/Surface.html Surface Wave Theory]””. University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee.

* David Reiss, “”[http://web.mit.edu/redingtn/www/netadv/zenneck.html Electromagnetic surface waves]””. The Net Advance of Physics: Special Reports, No. 1

* Gary L. Peterson, “”[http://www.tfcbooks.com/articles/tws4.htm Rediscovering the Zenneck wave]””. Feed Line No. 4. (”ed”. reproduction available online at Twenty First Century Books)

* [http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/3DWaves/ 3D Waves] by Jesse Nochella based on a program by Stephen Wolfram, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.

Patents

* , “”Surface wave transmission line””. George J. E. Goubau

* , “”Launching and receiving of surface waves””. George J. E. Goubau.

* , “”Surface wave transmission system over a single conductor having E-fields terminating along the conductor ””. Glenn E. Elmore.

Standards and doctrines

* “”[http://www.atis.org/glossary/definition.aspx?id=999 Surface wave]””. Telecom Glossary 2000, ATIS Committee T1A1, Performance and Signal Processing, T1.523-2001.

* “”[http://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/dir-035/_5194.htm Surface wave]””, Federal Standard 1037C.

* “”Surface wave””, MIL-STD-188

* “”[http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/websites/dodandmilitaryejournals/www.doctrine.quantico.usmc.mil/signpubs/r3403e.pdf Multi-service tactics, techniques, and procedures for the High-Frequency Automatic Link Establishment (HF-ALE)]: FM 6-02.74; MCRP 3-40.3E; NTTP 6-02.6; AFTTP(I) 3-2.48; COMDTINST M2000.7”” Sept., 2003.

Books

* Collin, R. E., “”Field Theory of Guided Waves””. New York: Wiley-IEEE Press, 1990.

* Waldron, Richard Arthur, “”Theory of guided electromagnetic waves””. London, New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1970. ISBN 0-442-09167-2 LCCN 69019848 //r86

* Weiner, Melvin M., “”Monopole antennas”” New York, Marcel Dekker, 2003. ISBN 0-8247-0496-7

* Wait, J. R., “”The Waves in Stratified Media””. New York: Pergamon, 1962.

* Wait, J. R., “”Electromagnetic Wave Theory””, New York, Harper and Row, 1985.

* Budden, K. G., “” The propagation of radio waves : the theory of radio waves of low power in the ionosphere and magnetosphere””. Cambridge (Cambridgeshire); New York : Cambridge University Press, 1985. ISBN 0-521-25461-2 LCCN 84028498

* Budden, K. G., “”Radio waves in the ionosphere; the mathematical theory of the reflection of radio waves from stratified ionised layers””. Cambridge, Eng., University Press, 1961. LCCN 61016040 /L/r85

* Budden, K. G., “”The wave-guide mode theory of wave propagation””. London, Logos Press; Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, c1961. LCCN 62002870 /L

* Barlow, H.M., and Brown, J., “Radio Surface Waves”, Oxford University Press 1962.

* Sommerfeld, A., “Partial Differential Equations in Physics” (English version), Academic Press Inc., New York 1949, chapter 6 – “Problems of Radio”.

* Rawer, K.,””Wave Propagation in the Ionosphere””, Dordrecht, Kluwer Acad.Publ. 1993.

Journals and papers

;Zenneck, Sommerfeld, and Norton

* J. Zenneck, (translators: P. Blanchin, G. Guérard, É. Picot), “”Précis de télégraphie sans fil : complément de l’ouvrage : Les oscillations électromagnétiques et la télégraphie sans fil””, Paris : Gauthier-Villars, 1911. viii, 385 p. : ill. ; 26 cm. (”Tr”. Precisions of wireless telegraphy: complement of the work: Electromagnetic oscillations and wireless telegraphy)

* J. Zenneck, “”Über die Fortpflanzung ebener elektromagnetischer Wellen Mngs einer ebenen Leiterflache und ihre Beziehung zur drahtlosen Telegraphie””, Ann. der Phwk, vol. 23, pp. 846-866, Sept. 1907. (”Tr”. “Over the reproduction of even electromagnetic waves of an even leader-flat and their relationship with the wireless telegraphy” )

* J. Zenneck, “”Elektromagnetische Schwingungen und drahtlose Telegraphie””, gart, F. Enke, 1905. xxvii, 1019 p. : ill. ; 24 cm. (Tr”. “Electromagnetic oscillations and wireless telegraphy.”)

* J. Zenneck, (translator: A.E. Seelig) “”Wireless telegraphy,””, New York [etc.] McGraw-Hill Book Company, inc., 1st ed. 1915. xx, 443 p. illus., diagrs. 24 cm. LCCN 15024534 (”ed”. “Bibliography and notes on theory” p. 408-428.)

* A. Sommerfeld, “”Fortpffanzung elektrodynamischer Wellen an einem zylindnschen Leiter””, Ann. der Physik und Chemie, vol. 67, pp. 233–290, Dec 1899. (”Tr”. Reproduction of electro-dynamic waves at a cylinder leader)

* A. Sommerfeld, “”Über die Ausbreitlung der Wellen in der drahtlosen Telegraphie””, Annalen der Physik, Vol. 28, March, 1909, pp. 665-736. (”Tr”. Over the Propagation of the waves in the wireless telegraphy)

* A. Sommerfeld, “”Propagation of waves in wireless telegraphy””, Ann. Phys., vol. 81, pp. 1367–1153, 1926.

* K. A. Norton, “”The propagation of radio waves over the surface of the earth and in the upper atmosphere””, Proc. IRE, vol. 24, pp. 1367–1387, 1936.

* K. A. Norton, “”The calculations of ground wave field intensity over a finitely conducting spherical earth””, Proc. IRE, vol. 29, pp. 623–639, 1941.

;Wait

* Wait, J. R., “”Lateral Waves and the Pioneering Research of the Late Kenneth A Norton””.

* Wait, J. R., and D. A. Hill, “”Excitation of the HF surface wave by vertical and horizontal apertures””. Radio Science, 14, 1979, pp 767-780.

* Wait, J. R., and D. A. Hill, “”Excitation of the Zenneck surface by a vertical aperture””, Radio Science, 13, 1978, pp. 967-977.

* Wait, J. R., “”A note on surface waves and ground waves””, IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, Nov 1965. Vol. 13, Issue 6, pg 996- 997 ISSN 0096-1973

* Wait, J. R., “”The ancient and modern history of EM ground-wave propagation””. IEEE Antennas Propagat. Mag., vol. 40, pp. 7–24, Oct. 1998.

* Wait, J. R., “”Appendix C: On the theory of ground wave propagation over a slightly roughned curved earth””, ”Electromagnetic Probing in Geophysics”. Boulder, CO., Golem, 1971, pp. 37–381.

* Wait, J. R., “”Electromagnetic surface waves””, ”Advances in Radio Research”, 1, New York, Academic Press, 1964, pp. 157-219.

;Others

* R. E. Collin, “”Hertzian Dipole Radiating Over a Lossy Earth or Sea: Some Early and Late 20th-Century Controversies””, Antennas and Propagation Magazine, 46, 2004, pp. 64-79.

* F. J. Zucker, “”Surface wave antennas and surface wave excited arrays””, Antenna Engineering Handbook, 2nd ed., R. C. Johnson and H. Jasik, Eds. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984.

* Hill, D. and J.R Wait, “”Excitation of the Zenneck Surface Wave by a Vertical Aperture””, Radio Science, Vol. 13, No. 6, November-December, 1978, pp. 969-977.

* Yu. V. Kistovich, “”Possibility of Observing Zenneck Surface Waves in Radiation from a Source with a Small Vertical Aperture””, Soviet Physics Technical Physics, Vol. 34, No.4, April, 1989, pp. 391-394.

* V. I. Baĭbakov, V. N. Datsko, Yu. V. Kistovich, “”Experimental discovery of Zenneck’s surface electromagnetic waves””, Sov Phys Uspekhi, 1989, 32 (4), 378-379.

* Corum, K. L. and J. F. Corum, “”The Zenneck Surface Wave””, ”Nikola Tesla, Lightning Observations, and Stationary Waves, Appendix II”. 1994.

* M. J. King and J. C. Wiltse, “”Surface-Wave Propagation on Coated or Uncoated Metal Wires at Millimeter Wavelengths””. J. Appl. Phys., vol. 21, pp. 1119-1128; November,

* Georg Goubau, “”Surface waves and their application to transmission lines””, J. Appl. Phys., vol. 21, pp. 1119-1128; November,1950.

* M. J. King and J. C. Wiltse, “”Surface-Wave Propagation on a Dielectric Rod of Electric Cross-Section.”” Electronic Communications, Inc., Tirnonium: kld. Sci. Rept.’No. 1, AFCKL Contract No. AF 19(601)-5475; August, 1960.

* T. Kahan and G. Eckart, “”On the Electromagnetic Surface Wave of Sommerfeld””, Phys. Rev. 76, 406–410 (1949).

Other media

* L.A. Ostrovsky (ed.), “”Laboratory modeling and theoretical studies of surface wave modulation by a moving sphere””, m, Oceanic and Atmospheric Research Laboratories, 2002. OCLC 50325097

Category:Radio frequency propagation

Category:Broadcast engineering

Category:Wave mechanics

Category:Seismology and earthquake terminology

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de:Bodenwelle

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ja:表面波

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pl:Fala przyziemna

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article Surface wave, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Novels

Almost as soon as he’d left San Francisco, the Doctor had another brief attack of amnesia, caused by a final trap of the Master’s. To regain his memories, the Doctor was forced to visit all seven of his past selves and help them out with some crisis or another, at the same time acknowledging the responsibility his role gave him. Having regained his memories, the Doctor met a late twentieth-century Coal Hill School student named Samantha Jones; shortly after their encounter, the Doctor left her alone at a Greenpeace rally.

For a time, the Doctor adventured with an Ice Warrior named Ssard and a human woman named Stacy Townsend, who fell in love with each other; some while after they parted ways with the Doctor, the two invited him to serve as best man at their wedding (”Placebo Effect”). He also, at some point, teamed up with his old companion Bernice Summerfield, Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart and UNIT to combat an Ice Warrior occupation of Great Britain.

Faction Paradox

Eventually, three years after his departure and one hour after he left, the Doctor returned to the Greenpeace rally. With Sam collected, the pair spent a great period wandering together, facing dozens of adventures. During their travels, Sam and the Doctor became aware of a great War, looming in the future of Gallifrey — a war between the Time Lords and an as-yet-unidentified Enemy, with dramatic and disturbing consequences. While exploring the subject, the Doctor discovered that his Sam was not the original Samantha Jones; rather, her biodata had been manipulated by an outside agency with the intent to mold her into a prosaic distraction for him (”Alien Bodies”). Ultimately this plan proved a failure, as Sam developed into a much more strongly-willed companion than intended; at one point she spent three years avoiding the Doctor, so as to cope with a crush she had developed on him.

The close dynamic between the pair was shifted with the introduction of Fitz Kreiner, a sixties bar singer incorrectly suspected of matricide. Fitz took on the role of a sort of younger brother to the Doctor, placing the Time Lord on as high a pedestal as Fitz had ever known. Eventually Fitz found himself abducted by Faction Paradox, a “time-travelling voodoo cult”, and brainwashed into their legions. When the Doctor realised that a Faction member he had encountered was a biomass copy of Fitz, he used the TARDIS’s telepathic circuits to restore Fitz’s memories and identity to the clone, believing that the original Fitz was dead and reasoning that the clone would essentially be the real Fitz in every way that mattered.

With both Sam and Fitz gone — Sam’s creators having been established as the Faction — the Doctor continued his travels with the clone Fitz and Compassion, an ex-Faction agent implanted with an interface that the Doctor found compatible with his TARDIS. Unbeknownst to the Doctor, the Faction — with the aid of the original Fitz — had changed his history, triggering the Third Doctor’s regeneration ahead of schedule and infecting him with a virus that, in his eighth incarnation- his immune system being too strong to allow the virus to infect him directly while allowing it to gain a hold on him each time he regenerated-, would transform him into a Faction member (”Interference: Book One and Two”).

Eventually, Compassion’s implant triggered her unexpected mutation into a sentient Type 102 TARDIS, specifically the “mother” of the TARDISes that would be used in the pending War. With this knowledge, The Time Lords — led by Romana, now in her third incarnation — attempted to capture Compassion, for use as breeding stock in preparation for the War. In response, and in light of the apparent destruction of his old TARDIS, the Doctor and Fitz retreated into Compassion (”The Shadows of Avalon”).

The Doctor and Fitz travelled in Compassion for some time, until the machinations of Faction Paradox came to a head back on Gallifrey. As it turned out, in the new timeline triggered by the Doctor’s infection, the Doctor was destined to become “Grandfather Paradox”, the mythical founder of Faction Paradox. The only factor keeping the original sequence of events in play was the Doctor’s TARDIS — which had rebuilt itself after its apparent destruction on Avalon, and had now materialised in a twisted form above Gallifrey, holding within itself the Doctor’s original reality.

In a final confrontation with his future self, the Doctor resolved the timeline conflict by channeling the TARDIS’s built-up energies through its weapon systems, thereby destroying both the Faction Paradox fleet and Gallifrey itself. In so doing, the TARDIS was able to rewrite the altered timeline with the original one that it “remembered”; no longer able to contain both timelines as a result of its energy drain, one reality had to become ‘real’. As a side effect, however, the Doctor’s entire memory was erased — apparently from the trauma of the event (”The Ancestor Cell”).

Amnesia on Earth

To give the Doctor time to recover and the TARDIS time to regenerate from the extensive damage it had suffered, Compassion dropped the Doctor off on Earth in the year 1889; she then delivered Fitz to 2001, with the intent that he wait for the Doctor to catch up to him. With that, Compassion departed for parts unknown. Back in 1889, meanwhile, the Doctor awoke in a railway carriage to discover no memory as to his real identity, and no possessions save a small, shapeless box — what was left of the TARDIS after its power loss— and a note, simply stating “Meet me in St. Louis’, 8 February 2001. Fitz”.

Despite his amnesia, the Doctor retained a wide general knowledge. However, he also showed an uncharacteristic callous streak — easily allowing others to die, if the situations demanded it. (”The Burning”). To contrast, he was capable of feeling unusually poignant warmth, even dating a woman in the 1980s, and adopting a young girl named Miranda, a Time Lady from the future (”Father Time”).

Unsure what “St Louis” was intended by the note, the Doctor created his own in London: the St Louis Bar and Restaurant. As 2001 rolled around, Fitz indeed turned up there to meet him. With the aid of new companion Anji Kapoor, the Doctor and Fitz completed the TARDIS’s regeneration, dealt with a race of invading aliens, then set back again to exploring time and space (”Escape Velocity”).

With his freedom restored, the Doctor chose to counteract his extended exile by seeking as much non-human company as possible. During this period, the Doctor encountered all manner of unusual beings — from a species that a cursory glance resembled the Earth tiger (”The Year of Intelligent Tigers”), to water spirits, to talking apes from another dimension. Though at times the Doctor seemed somewhat cold — as when he seemed more concerned about damaged plums than a dead man (”Eater of Wasps”) — he retained his passion for life in all forms. Although his amnesia remained a bother, the Doctor acknowledged that whatever had happened to him had happened for a reason, and he might as well make use of the advantages it offered.

Sabbath and parallel times

Only a few months after resuming his old lifestyle, the Doctor faced another radical change: the loss of his second heart. As it happened, the heart served as a bond with Gallifrey; with the planet gone, the heart had begun to fester within the Doctor’s body, pumping it with poison.

A man named Sabbath, an eighteenth-century secret agent gifted with time travel abilities, excised the blackened organ, both saving the Doctor’s life and robbing the Doctor of some of his higher Time Lord abilities (his respiratory bypass system and his ability to metabolise toxins). It transpired that Sabbath was actually after the heart for his own purposes: when implanted into Sabbath’s own chest, it imparted upon him those same Time Lord powers. An unexpected side effect of this experiment was that so long as the Doctor’s heart remained within Sabbath’s chest, the Doctor himself remained practically invulnerable to harm (though any injury sustained by the Doctor would weaken Sabbath).

Eventually, after a woman Sabbath loved sacrificed herself to save the Doctor from a malfunctioning time machine, Sabbath tore out the Doctor’s second heart, allowing the Doctor to begin growing a new one.

Shortly after the restoration of his heart, the Doctor found himself locked in a desperate struggle with Sabbath as, along with his mysterious business associates, Sabbath hatched a plan to destroy all alternate realities. Sabbath believed that time travellers like the Doctor, every time they landed somewhere, created an alternate reality where they didn’t show up, and that the universe was unable to support so many alternates without suffering damage; therefore, he attempted to trigger an explosion at Event One — the Big Bang — that would erase all alternate universes and leaving only one possible timeline. However, Sabbath’s allies had been lying to him; in reality, Time would only split if absolutely necessary, and even then, it was nearly impossible to travel between alternate realities. Effectively, all that would be wiped out was free will itself…

The explosion at Event One was averted, but instead, what occurred was reality starting to ‘slide’ between histories, each reality fighting to become the dominant one. Along with new companion Trix, the Doctor, Fitz and Anji travelled through the realities, the Doctor being forced to erase at least two of them in order to restore the original reality. During this adventure, the Doctor appeared to become a bit more cold and calculating, sacrificing an innocent man to escape a pocket universe and even leaving alternate versions of Fitz and Anji to die in order to preserve continuity. However, in the end, their sacrifices paid off, the Doctor managing to stabilise reality by resolving a paradox that had been hanging over them since the beginning of the crisis, and then, with Sabbath’s help, they confronted his masters; the Council of Eight, mysterious beings who gained power by foreseeing likely future events and then ensuring that they came to pass. The Doctor, as a rogue element existing outside of Time, was the only unpredictable factor in their universe, and was thus the only person who could stop them. Ironically, it was Sabbath himself who gave the Doctor the edge needed to stop the Council; realising that one of the Council members expected Sabbath to shoot him with a weapon designed to send the subject into the Time Vortex, Sabbath instead shot himself, condemning himself to eternal agony in the Time Vortex, but completely undoing the Council’s plan and destroying their space station, simultaneously restoring the possibility of parallel worlds to the universe.

”The Gallifrey Chronicles”

Some while after this, the Doctor was captured by Marnal, one of the few surviving Gallifreyans, and accused of destroying Gallifrey. Although Gallifrey had been all but wiped from history by the Doctor’s actions, Marnal was able to jury-rig a Time Space Visualiser in order to witness the Doctor actually push the button as he faced off against the Grandfather, although there were about three minutes where the Doctor’s activities in the TARDIS were unaccounted for. Reflecting on his discoveries in the TARDIS, the Doctor, along with the aid of K9 (who had been transported into a hidden area of the TARDIS and trapped there following Gallifrey’s destruction) realised that his memory loss hadn’t been caused by the trauma of destroying Gallifrey; in fact, the Doctor had wiped his memories in order to give his mind space to store the contents of the Matrix within his brain, compressed down so he wouldn’t be driven mad by the voices of all the dead Time Lords within him, his own memories presumably stored somewhere else in his mind, given his occasional flashes from his past. However, right then, the Doctor had more immediate worries; namely, saving Earth from a species of massive fly-like aliens called the Vore, who would soon have the power to devour the planet. As ”The Gallifrey Chronicles” ended, the Doctor, Fitz, and Trix dove into the Vore mountain, the Doctor equipped with a plan to stop the Vore and save the world.

Audio dramas

Sometime after the events in San Francisco, the Doctor found himself wandering alone through the Vortex. In the wake of a Vortisaur attack, he was forced to land on Earth, in October 1930, aboard the doomed R101 airship. Aboard the vessel, the Doctor met a young adventuress by the name of Charley Pollard. In the course of his adventure, the Doctor saved Charley’s life and took her aboard the TARDIS as his latest companion (”Storm Warning”). Though done in good faith, the Doctor soon understood that Charley’s rescue would have much greater impact upon the timestream.

For two “seasons” of audio adventures, Charley’s continued existence despite established history being in part contingent on her death on the R101 formed a rough plot arc in which the universe became infected with “anti-time”, culminating in a conflict with the wraithlike Never People and the Doctor choosing to sacrifice himself and his TARDIS by absorbing anti-time energy and transforming into the bogeyman Zagreus. This was only resolved when, restored to sanity but still infected with anti-time, the Doctor chose to sacrifice himself for the sake of Charley and the universe as a whole by removing himself from space and time, plunging into a divergent universe, of which he had no knowledge or frame of reference and in which there was no concept of linear time (”Zagreus”). Charley stowed away on his TARDIS, in a sense nullifying the Doctor’s sacrifice by again placing herself in danger; for a time, this fact caused great friction between the characters and personal angst for the Doctor.

For another two seasons, the Doctor, Charley, and a new companion by the name of C’rizz, explored the divergent universe, gradually unravelling a deep plot designed around the Doctor by Rassilon, founder of Time Lord society. Eventually, with the aid of his companions, the Doctor escaped the trap built for him, overcame his emotional burden, learned that he had been purged of Zagreus and returned to his normal universe with Charley and C’Rizz in tow (”The Next Life”).

Following that point, which coincided with the end of the official Big Finish “seasons” in light of the return of ”Doctor Who” to television in 2005, the trio wandered freely. The only continuing plot element involved C’rizz and his unusual, potentially destructive psychological development. This culminated in C’rizz’s death (”Absolution”) which led Charley to also wish to leave the Doctor’s company. Due to an episode of amnesia, brought on by a healing coma induced by a cyber planner, the Eighth Doctor believes Charley has left him (”The Girl Who Never Was”), when she was in fact stuck in the year 500002, whom is rescued by the Sixth Doctor (”The Condemned”) suggesting that when the Eighth Doctor first met Charley he already knew her in some form. However, in a Big Finish Productions podcast, executive producer Nick Briggs , when speaking on this development, confirmed that the Eighth Doctor in fact does not know Charley at “their” first meeting, which itself strongly suggested that when the Sixth Doctor and Charley ultimately part company any memory on his part of their adventures will either be altered or erased. This was later confirmed when Charley departed after she was replaced for a while with a woman called Mila who assumed her appearance; before her departure, she had an alien race called the Viyrans alter the Sixth Doctor’s memories to replace his memories of her with Mila’s true face and name in order to preserve the timeline, telling the Sixth Doctor that he had died before she left him (Although this assumption was a mistake on Charley’s part, the Eighth Doctor having merely fallen into a healing coma after an attack).

It has also been revealed (in ”Terror Firma”) that prior to meeting Charley, the Doctor travelled with at least two other companions — a brother-and-sister pair (Samson and Gemma Griffin) — of whom the Doctor’s memories had been erased by Davros, as part of an elaborate revenge plot.

Romana and K-9 briefly travelled with the Eighth Doctor in the 2003 remake of ”Shada”.

In September 2006, ”Doctor Who Magazine” announced a new audio miniseries featuring the Eighth Doctor and new companion Lucie Miller (played by Sheridan Smith), set later in the character’s chronology, after he has parted ways with Charley and C’rizz. Produced by Big Finish Productions, the miniseries was broadcast on BBC7; they began on New Year’s Eve 2006 and ended on the 18 February 2007. The miniseries consisted of eight episodes, constituting six stories (the first and last stories having two parts). These are ”Blood of the Daleks”, ”Horror of Glam Rock”, ”Immortal Beloved”, ”Phobos”, ”No More Lies” and ”Human Resources”. In this series, the Time Lords have placed Lucie Miller in the Doctor’s care as part of a “witness protection programme”, contrary to the wishes of either the Doctor or Lucie. A second series of adventures featured the Doctor and Lucie and ended on a cliffhanger, and a third season is being streamed from the Big Finish website, as well as being available on CD. A fourth season, featuring a new (as yet unnamed)compainion, has been announced for 2010 starting with a 2009 Christmas episode, ”Death in Blackpool”, which will deal with the departure of Lucie. The second series (up to ”The Zygon Who Fell to Earth”) was broadcast on BBC7 in autumn of 2008, with the remainder broadcast in late 2009.

An alternate version of the Eighth Doctor, from a timeline where the Seventh Doctor regenerated after being shot by the Nazis in the 1950s, was first mentioned in the audio drama ”Colditz”, and appears (played by McGann) in ”Klein’s Story”. Under the name Schmidt he taught Klein how to pilot the TARDIS, thereby putting her in a position to inadvertently assist the Seventh Doctor in preventing this timeline from occurring.

Comic strips=

Unfinished Business

In the Doctor Who Magazine comic strips, at an unstated time after his regeneration (and after an adventure in the 1930s involving Fey Truscott-Sade and psychic weasels), the Doctor revisited the town of Stockbridge. After being caught up in the games of the Celestial Toymaker, he picked up a new companion in lively sci-fi fan Izzy Sinclair. The two of them were soon caught up in the machinations of the Doctor’s old enemies the Threshold, a mercenary organisation. The Threshold attempted to manipulate the Doctor into stopping the Daleks gaining access to the multiverse (which would kill an artificial solar system as a side effect) and dying in the attempt, but were outmaneuvered. Unknown to him, they implanted a device in Fey Truscott-Sade so that they could use her as an unwilling spy when she next encountered the Doctor. She did so in 1939, assisting him and Izzy against the vampiric Varney; the Doctor was left infected with a deadly bacillus, and he had to be taken to Gallifrey to be cured, luring him into a battle against a Time Lord cult called the Final Chapter.

Working out that the Threshold were using Fey as a spy, the Doctor and his old comrade Shayde faked a regeneration. The Threshold was conned into believing they were facing a vulnerable new Doctor (Shayde in disguise), allowing the real Doctor to infiltrate their base. While he and his friends were too late to stop the Threshold from destroying every single spacecraft in the universe, they were able to bring about the organisation’s destruction before it could profit. Fey returned to her time, having also bonded with Shayde to save his life.

Unknowingly, the TARDIS had been taken over by the Master, who was manipulating events to gain the power of the omniversal Glory. The Doctor was specifically sent to times and places that would undermine him – discovering he had upset the course of Grace Holloway’s life in 2001, encountering an alien race with motivations uncomfortably similar to his which caused death and horror in 17th Century Japan, and almost killing the benevolent Kroton by mistake. (A slight diversion between events saw the Doctor and Izzy team up with the actor Tom Baker and other 1970s television actors against Beep the Meep in 1979.)

In 17th Century Japan, the Doctor’s attempt to save the life of samurai Katsura Sato, a friend of Izzy, left the man inadvertently immortal and thus robbed of both an honourable death and any sense of empathy. The Master later came for Sato, when he was mentally vulnerable, and gave him a fake religion to focus his mind on; Earth’s history was altered as Sato, renamed Lord Morningstar, and his Church of the Glorious Dead conquered the planet, creating a technological advanced, highly brutal planet of jihadists. The Doctor, Izzy and Kroton wandered into their invasion of the museum planet Paradost; while the Doctor faced the Master over the Glory, Izzy and Kroton spent weeks on the occupied world. The Doctor was defeated, only for the Master discover he was not able to access the Glory, as instead Kroton and Sato had been the ones prophesised to battle for it. Kroton won the Glory, the Master was purged from the TARDIS and history was reverted, and the Doctor and Izzy took a well-earned break.

Destrii

During a battle against the body-stealing Ophidians and their gigantic snake-shaped techno-organic warship, the Doctor and Izzy encountered a brash and adventurous fish-woman called Destrii. While seemingly friendly and bonding with Izzy, Destrii was secretly on the run and she swapped bodies with Izzy to cover her escape; when Destrii was seemingly killed, Izzy seemed trapped within an alien body. The Doctor’s next few journeys were spent trying to help her in this situation, both in coming to terms with the change and finding out what her new body’s abilities were. Frida Kahlo helped Izzy mentally deal with the change, but the attempt at testing Izzy’s abilities led her and the Doctor into a turbulent encounter with the humanised Daleks he had created in his second incarnation. Unable to prevent their tragic end – self-destructing to escape the machinations of the malevolent psychic Kata-Phobus -, the two of them were distracted and caught off-guard when Helioth and Hassana, two of the energy-beings called the Horde, abducted Izzy thinking she was Destrii.

The Doctor went on a relentless search to rescue his friend, with the help of Fey/Shayde and by forcing cooperation from Destrii, still alive in her stolen body. His quest led him to the planet Oblivion, a surreal and brutal world ruled by Destrii’s mother, the Matriax. Izzy was rescued and returned to her original form, while Oblivion’s court system and the menace of the Horde were both destroyed, leaving Destrii free to leave her world and explore the universe with her rougish uncle Jodafra. However, Izzy had decided she wanted to return home to her family, and the Doctor was left alone.

Feeling slightly morose, the Doctor was cheered up by an unknowing encounter with his old companion Frobisher and went on several ‘holiday’ adventures on his own. He eventually re-encountered Destrii and Jodafra in America during the 19th Century, where the upcoming clash between General Custer and Chief Sitting Bull was interrupted by Jodafra’s machinations involving the monstrous wendigo. Jodafra had made a deal with the creature: power in exchange for being fed children. Unable to stomach this and with the Doctor urging her to listen to the spark of decency in her, Destrii helped the Doctor stop her uncle. In revenge, she was left beaten and abandoned, and the Doctor took her in as a probationary companion. Together, the two of them teamed up with MI6 and faced an invasion of early 21st Century Earth by time-travelling Cybermen; they were preparing to chemically overload the emotions of humans and thus make them willingly surrender to have their emotions removed by conversion. The Doctor destroyed them through use of the Time Vortex (similar to the later “The Parting of the Ways”), almost surrendering to it but giving up its power to save Destrii.

In 2007, Panini Books published ”Doctor Who: The Flood”, the final collection of comic strips featuring the Eighth Doctor in ”Doctor Who Magazine”. The book includes the essay “Flood Barriers” by strip editor Clayton Hickman in which he reveals that Russell T Davies had authorized the comic strip to depict the regeneration of the Eighth Doctor into the Ninth Doctor at the end of the 2004–2005 arc, ”The Flood”. The cause of the regeneration would have been the Doctor’s exposure to the Time Vortex in his efforts to destroy the Cybermen (the same cause that triggered the later Ninth to Tenth Doctor regeneration in ”Parting of the Ways”). Destrii would have witnessed the regeneration and would have continued to travel with the Ninth Doctor in a proposed ”Year One” arc. When Davies vetoed the ”Year One” arc and indicated the Ninth Doctor could only be shown travelling with Rose Tyler, Hickman and writer Scott Gray eventually decided not to depict the regeneration as they would have been unable to give Destrii a proper departure. The Panini collection includes the original script for the regeneration sequence, as well as never before published art showing the regeneration itself.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Eighth Doctor, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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According to current plans, the ExoMars mission will comprise three, possibly four, spacecraft elements sent in two launches, both from Florida:

2016 launch=

Mars Trace Gas Mission orbiter

The Mars Trace Gas Mission (TGM) orbiter, to be launched on January 2016, will deliver the ExoMars static lander (a meteorological station) and then proceed to map the sources of methane on Mars and other gases, and in doing so, help select the landing site for the ExoMars rover to be launched on 2018. The presence of methane in Mars’ atmosphere is intriguing because its likely origin is either present-day life or geological activity. Upon the arrival of the rover(s) in 2018/2019, the orbiter would be transferred into a suitable lower orbit where it would be able to perform analytical science activities as well as operate as a data-relay satellite. Its operation may be extended to serve future missions well into the 2020s.

Static lander

Originally, this static lander was planned to carry a group of eleven instruments collectively called the “Humboldt payload” that would be dedicated to investigate the geophysics of the deep interior, but a payload confirmation review in the first quarter of 2009 resulted in a severe descope of the lander instruments, and the Humboldt geophysical suite of lander instruments was cancelled entirely. Although the recent partnership with NASA and the decision to launch all mission elements with two rockets has generated new payload reviews, it was decided to first demonstrate ESA’s new descent and landing system technology on the lander, so its payload will be very limited.

The Entry, Descent and Landing Demonstrator Module (EDM) will provide Europe with the technology for landing on the surface of Mars with a controlled landing orientation and touchdown velocity. After entering the Martian atmosphere, the module will deploy a parachute and will complete its landing by using a closed-loop Guidance, Navigation and Control system based on a Radar Doppler Altimeter sensor and on-board Inertial Measurement Units. The latter will guide a liquid propulsion system which will produce a semi-soft touchdown on the surface of Mars by the actuation of clusters of thrusters to be operated in pulsed on-off mode.

The EDM lander is expected to survive on the surface of Mars for a short time (about 8 sols) by using the excess energy capacity of its batteries. Its proposed landing site is the Meridiani Planum because it is almost flat and without too many rocks, ideal for its airbag landing system.

2018 launch

Current plans call for the use of NASA’s sky crane entry, descent and landing (EDL) system to deliver both rovers together on the surface of Mars.

If there will be two rovers delivered to the same location on Mars, Their science objectives and instruments will be complementary in order to minimise duplication. Advantages of operating two rovers in the same area are: rover to rover imaging, cross analysis of similar geological targets, may include a low-frequency ground-penetrating radar on MAX-C and listen with WISDOM on ExoMars to construct rover to rover subsurface transects, and the MAX-C could receive and cache some of the most valuable subsurface samples collected by ExoMars.

ExoMars rover

The ExoMars rover is a highly autonomous six-wheeled terrain vehicle and will weigh 270& kg, ca. 100& kg more than NASA’s Mars Exploration Rovers ”Spirit” and ”Opportunity”. Temporary plans considered a downsized version with a reduced weight of 207& kg. Instrumentation will consist of the 10& kg ‘Pasteur Payload’ containing, among other instruments, a 2 meter sub-surface drill.

The carrier module will deliver the descent module to Mars from a hyperbolic approach trajectory after which the Sky-crane landing system will ensure a soft landing with high accuracy. Once safely landed on the Martian surface the solar powered rover would begin a 180-sol (6 months) mission. To counter the difficulty of remote control due to communication lag, ExoMars will have autonomous software for visual terrain navigation using compressed stereo images from mast mounted panoramic and infrared cameras and independent maintenance. For this purpose it creates digital maps from navigation stereo pair cameras and autonomously finds the adequate trajectory. Close-up collision avoidance cameras are used to ensure safety enabling the vehicle to navigate and safely travel approximately 100 meters per day. After the lander has been released and landed on the surface of Mars, the Mars Trace Gas Orbiter will operate as the rover’s data-relay satellite.

MAX-C rover

The current proposal is that ExoMars may be joined by a slightly smaller NASA rover; this additional rover may be the Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher (MAX-C). The fact that for the first time two rovers will be active at the same location is expected to lead to synergies, such as bistatic radar surveys between the two rovers. The MAX-C rover would collect, analyse, and cache the most valuable samples in a manner suitable for return to Earth by a future mission.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article ExoMars, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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