* A twist drill is a bit with two cutted grooves in opposite sides of a round bar, whereby the twisted bar produces a helical flute in order to drill holes in metal, plastic, or wood. The twist drill was invented by Stephen A. Morse in October 1861 and later patented on April 7, 1863.

1861 Postcard

* A postcard or post card is a rectangular piece of material, such as paper, leather or other materials, intended for writing and mailing without an envelope. “Postal card” is the term used for a post card issued by a postal authority, generally with postage prepaid. The post card was invented by John P. Charlton of Philadelphia in 1861 for which he obtained the copyright later transferred to H.L. Lipman. The cards were adorned with a small border and labeled “Lipman’s Postal Card, Patent Applied For.” and later “COPY-RIGHT SECURED 1861.” They were on the market until 1873 when the first United States issued postcards appeared.

1861 Modern pin tumbler lock

* The pin tumbler lock is a lock mechanism that uses pins of varying lengths to prevent the lock from opening without the correct key. Pin tumblers are most commonly employed in cylinder locks, but may also be found in tubular or radial locks. The earliest pin-tumble locks were made over 4,000 years ago by the Egyptians. But due to their large, cumbersome size and since they were made of wood, the locks were not practical to use. In 1861, Linus Yale, Jr. was inspired by the original 1840s cylindrical lock designed by his father, Linus Yale, Sr., thus inventing and patenting a smaller flat key with serrated edges as well as pins of varying lengths within the lock itself, the same design of the pin-tumbler lock which still remains in use today.

1861 Machine gun

* The machine gun is typically considered to be a fully automatic firearm, usually designed to fire rifle cartridges in quick succession from an ammunition belt or large-capacity magazine. The Gatling gun, invented and patented in 1861 by Richard Gatling during the American Civil War, was the earliest precursor to a machine gun in the sense that it had all of the underlying features of reliable loading as well as the ability to fire sustained multiple bursts of rounds, the only drawback being, it had to be manually operated and hand-cranked unlike its 1884 successor, the Maxim gun, which was indisputably the world’s first true machine gun.

1863 Breakfast cereal

Breakfast cereal is a packaged food product intended to be consumed as part of a breakfast. The first breakfast cereal, Granula was invented in the United States in 1863 by James Caleb Jackson, operator of the Jackson Sanitorium in Dansville, New York. The cereal never became popular since it was inconvenient, as the heavy bran nuggets needed soaking overnight before they were tender enough to eat.

1863 Ratchet wrench

A socket wrench, more commonly referred to as a ratchet, is a type of wrench, or tightening tool, that uses separate, removable sockets to fit many different sizes of fittings and fasteners, most commonly nuts and bolts. The ratchet wrench was invented by J.J. Richardson of Woodstock, Vermont, receiving a patent for the ratcher wrench from the Scientific American Patent Agency on June 18, 1863.

1863 Roller skates

Roller skates are devices worn on the feet to enable the wearer to roll on wheels. James Leonard Plimpton of Medford, Massachusetts, invented the first practical four-wheeled roller skates in 1863.

1864 Spar torpedo

The spar torpedo consists of a bomb placed at the end of a long pole, or spar]], and attached to a boat. The weapon is used by running the end of the spar into the enemy ship. Spar torpedoes were often equipped with a barbed spear at the end, so it would stick to wooden hulls. A fuse could then be used to detonate it. The spar torpedo was invented in 1864 during the American Civil War by E. C. Singer, a private engineer who worked on secret projects for the benefit of the Confederate States of America.

1865 Cowboy hat

The cowboy hat is a high-crowned, wide-brimmed hat best known as the defining piece of attire for the North American cowboy. Today it is worn by many people, and is particularly associated with ranch workers in the western and southern United States, western Canada and northern Mexico, with country-western singers, and for participants in the North American rodeo circuit. It is recognized around the world as part of Old West cowboy lore. The shape of a cowboy hat’s crown and brim are often modified by the wearer for fashion and to protect against weather. The cowboy hat was invented in 1865 by John Batterson Stetson during a hunting trip, showing his companions how he could make fabric out of fur without weaving. Using the fur collected during the trip, his bare hands, and boiling water, Stetson made a piece of felt and then shaping it into a hat with a large brim which could protect he and his hunting party from weather elements such as rain, wind, and snow.

1865 Web rotary printing press

* In 1865, William Bullock invented a printing press that could feed paper on a continuous roll and print both sides of the paper at once. Used first by the ”Philadelphia Ledger”, the machine would become an American standard. It would also kill its inventor, who died when he accidentally fell into one of his presses.

1866 Urinal

* Not to be confused with a urinal in bottle form that is used in health care, a urinal is a specialized toilet for urinating only, generally by men and boys. It has the form of being wall mounted, with drainage and automatic or manual flushing. The urinal was patented by Andrew Rankin on March 27, 1866.

1866 Chuckwagon

* The chuckwagon is a wagon that carries food and cooking equipment on the prairies of the United States and Canada. They were part of a wagon train of settlers to feed nomadic workers like cowboys or loggers. While mobile kitchens had existed for generations, the invention of the chuckwagon is attributed to Texan rancher Charles Goodnight who introduced the concept in 1866.

1867 Motorcycle

The motorcycle is a single-track, two-wheeled motor vehicle powered by an engine. Although the first gasoline/petrol motorcycle powered by an internal combustion engine was developed in 1885 by a German named Gottlieb Daimler, his was certainly not the first motorcycle. Withstanding the absence of an internal combustion engine in its design, the world’s first and earliest motorcycle was a coal-powered, two-cylinder, steam-driven motorcycle invented in 1867 by an American named Sylvester Howard Roper.

1867 Paper clip

The paper clip attaches sheets of paper together, allowing them to be detached as necessary. The first patent for a bent wire paper clip was awarded to its inventor, Samuel B. Fay, in 1867.

1867 Barbed wire

Barbed wire is a type of fencing wire constructed with sharp edges or points arranged at intervals along the strands. It is used to construct inexpensive fences and is used atop walls surrounding secured property. It is also a major feature of the fortifications in trench warfare. A person or animal trying to pass through or over barbed wire will suffer discomfort and possibly injury. Barbed wire fencing requires only fence posts, wire, and fixing devices such as staples. On June 25, 1867, Lucien B. Smith of Kent, Ohio, patented barbed wire. Shortly thereafter, several other inventors, such as Joseph F. Glidden of DeKalb, Illinois, patented inventions for similar products, but Smith patented his first, allowing him to claim that he invented barbed wire.

1867 Ticker tape

* Ticker tape is a means of transmitting stock price information over telegraph lines. It consists of a paper strip which ran through a machine called a stock ticker, which printed abbreviated company symbols followed by price and volume information. In 1867, Edward A. Calahan of the American Telegraph Company invented the first stock telegraph printing instrument.

1867 Water-tube boiler

* A water-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which water circulates in tubes heated externally by the fire. Water-tube boilers are used for high-pressure boilers. Fuel is burned inside the furnace, creating hot gas which heats up water in the steam-generating tubes. The water-tube boiler was co-invented and co-patented by George Herman Babcock and Stephen Wilcox in 1867.

1867 Refrigerator car

* A refrigerator car or “reefer” is a refrigerated boxcar, designed to carry perishable freight at specific temperatures. Refrigerator cars differ from simple insulated boxcars and ventilated boxcars, neither of which are fitted with cooling apparatus. They can be ice-cooled, or use one of a variety of mechanical refrigeration systems, or utilize carbon dioxide as a cooling agent. In the 1860s, slaughtered cattle from the Great Plains were preserved in barrels of salt. Regular box cars were loaded with ice in another effort to preserve fresh meat that had limited success. Generally, it was found more economical in the early days of refrigeration to cool the cars with ice or frozen brine which was periodically replenished at icing stations along rail routes. In 1857, the first shipment of refrigerated beef was made from the Chicago stockyards to the East Coast in an ordinary box car packed with ice. Finally in 1867, the first patent (U.S. Patent #71,423) for a specialized refrigerator car was issued to its inventor, J.B. Sutherland of Detroit, Michigan.

1868 Paper bag

A bag is a non-rigid or semi-rigid container usually made of paper which is used to hold items or packages. In 1868, Margaret E. Knight while living in Springfield, Massachusetts invented a machine that folded and glued paper to form the brown paper bags familiar to what shoppers know and use today.

1868 Tape measure

A tape measure or measuring tape is a flexible form of ruler. It consists of a ribbon of cloth, plastic, fiber glass, or metal strip with linear-measurement markings. The design on which most modern spring tape measures are built was invented and patented by a New Haven, Connecticut resident named Alvin J. Fellows on July 14, 1868.

1869 Vibrator

A vibrator is a device intended to vibrate against the body and stimulate the nerves for a relaxing and pleasurable feeling. Some vibrators are designed as sex toys and are inserted inside the vagina or anus for erotic stimulation. The first vibrator was a steam-powered massager, which was invented by American physician George Taylor in 1869. Dr. Taylor recommended his vibrators for treatment of an illness known at the time as “female hysteria.” Hysteria, from the Greek for “suffering uterus,” involved anxiety, irritability, sexual fantasies, pelvic heaviness, and excessive vaginal lubrication—in other words, sexual arousal.

1869 American football

American football, known in the United States simply as football, is a spectator sport known for combining strategy with competitive physical play. The objective of the game is to score points by advancing the ball into the opposing team’s end zone. The ball can be advanced by carrying it (a running play) or by throwing it to a teammate (a passing play). Points can be scored in a variety of ways, including carrying the ball over the opponent’s goal line, catching a pass thrown over that goal line, kicking the ball through the goal posts at the opponent’s end zone, or tackling an opposing ball carrier within his end zone. The winner is the team with the most points when the time expires. The very first game of American football, a collegiate one, was held on November 6, 1869 between Rutgers University and Princeton University with a final score of Rutgers 6 Princeton 4. The first professional game of American football was held on November 12, 1892 between the Allegheny Athletic Association and the Pittsburgh Athletic Club ending in a 6–6 tie. As a descendant of rugby, the modern sport now known as American football is generally credited to its inventor, Walter Camp, who beginning in the 1880s, devised the play from scrimmage, the numerical assessment of goals and tries, the restriction of play to eleven men per side, set plays, sequences, and strategy features which led to the gradual evolution of the regulated game. Camp also was the leader of the American Football Rules Committee which devised the set of codified and regulated rules as to which American football continuously uses.

1869 Pipe wrench

* The pipe wrench, or Stillson wrench, is an adjustable wrench used for turning soft iron pipes and fittings with a rounded surface. The design of the adjustable jaw allows it to rock in the frame, such that any forward pressure on the handle tends to pull the jaws tighter together. Teeth angled in the direction of turn dig into the soft pipe. The pipe wrench was invented by Daniel C. Stillson in 1869.

1869 Clothes hanger

* A clothes hanger, or coat hanger, is a device in the shape of human shoulders designed to facilitate the hanging of a coat, jacket, sweater, shirt, blouse, or dress in a manner that prevents wrinkles, with a lower bar for the hanging of trousers or skirts. The shoulder-shaped wire hanger, was inspired by a coat hook invented in 1869 by O. A. North of New Britain, Connecticut.

1870 Sandblasting

* Sandblasting or bead blasting is a generic term for the process of smoothing, shaping, and cleaning a hard surface by forcing solid particles across that surface at high speeds. Sandblasting equipment typically consists of a chamber in which sand and air are mixed. The mixture travels through a hand-held nozzle to direct the particles toward the surface or workpiece. Nozzles come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and materials. Boron carbide is a popular material for nozzles because it resists abrasive wear well. In 1870, the sandblasting process was invented and patented by Benjamin Chew Tilghman.

1870 Chewing gum

* Chewing gum is a type of confection traditionally made of chicle, a natural latex product, or synthetic rubber known as polyisobutylene, which is a non-vulcanizable form of the butyl rubber (isoprene-isobutylene) used for inner tubes or to line tubeless tires. Chewing gum was invented in 1870 by Thomas Adams, receiving a patent on February 14, 1871.

1870 Hand mixer

* A hand mixer is a hand-cranked mixing device for whipping, beating, and folding food ingredients. It typically consists of a handle mounted over a piston, which drives one or two beaters. The beaters are immersed in the food to be mixed. In 1870, Walter Scott of Providence, Rhode Island, invented the first hand-cranked egg beater.

1872 Cream cheese

* Cream cheese is a sweet, soft, mild-tasting, white cheese which is not naturally matured and is meant to be consumed fresh. In 1872, cream cheese was invented by American dairyman William Lawrence of Chester, New York, selling it in foiled wrapping. From the 1880s and onwards, Lawrence’s cream cheese was distributed under his company’s name, Philadelphia cream cheese.

1872 Diner

* A diner is a restaurant characterized by a wide range of foods, a casual and often nostalgic atmosphere, a counter, and late operating hours. The precursor to the fast food eatery began in 1872 when Walter Scott, a myopic pressman for the ”Providence Journal”, became serious about selling food and refreshments in the streets. Scott had a plan. Instead of wearing out the soles of his shoes and roaming the streets of Providence, Rhode Island, he decided to buy a horse-drawn delivery van. Rolling on four wagon wheels, he would take his food to the people.

1872 Railway air brake

A railway air brake is a conveyance braking system which applies the means of compressed air which modern locomotives use to this day. George Westinghouse, a pioneer of the electrical industry, invented the railroad air brake in 1872.

1873 Jeans

Jeans are trousers generally made from denim. Jeans became popular among teenagers starting in the 1950s which remains as a distinct icon of American fashion. In 1873, Levi Strauss and Jacob Davis co-invented and co-patented the idea of using copper rivets at the stress points of sturdy work pants. After one of Davis’ customers kept purchasing cloth to reinforce torn pants, he had an idea to use copper rivets to reinforce the points of strain, such as on the pocket corners and at the top of the button fly. Davis did not have the required money to purchase a patent, so he wrote to Strauss suggesting that they both go into business together. Early Levis, called “waist overalls,” came in a brown canvas duck fabric and a heavy blue denim fabric. His business became extremely successful, revolutionizing the apparel industry.

1873 Knuckle coupler

Also known as a Janney coupler and the buckeye coupler, the knuckle coupler is the derivative of a coupling device that links and connects rolling railway cars such as passenger, refrigerator, freight, and stock cars together on railroad track. The knuckle coupler have a bifurcated drawhead and a revolving hook, which, when brought in contact with another coupler, automatically interlocks with its mate. Knuckle couplers replaced the much more dangerous link-and-pin couplers and became the basis for standard coupler design for the rest of the 19th century. The knuckle coupler was invented and patented by Eli H. Janney in 1873.

1873 Earmuffs

Earmuffs cover a person’s ears for thermal protection. Earmuffs consist of a thermoplastic or metal head-band, that fits over the top of the head, and a pad at each end, to cover the external ears. Earmuffs were invented by Chester Greenwood in 1873.

1874 Fire sprinkler

A fire sprinkler is the part of a fire sprinkler system that discharges water when the effects of a fire have been detected, such as when a pre-determined temperature has been reached. Henry S. Parmelee of New Haven, Connecticut invented and installed the first closed head fire sprinkler in 1874.

1874 Quadruplex telegraph

* A quadruplex telegraph is a type of electrical telegraph which allows a total of four separate signals to be transmitted and received on a single wire at the same time. With two signals in each direction, quadruplex telegraphy thus implements a form of multiplexing. The quadruplex telegraph was invented by Thomas Alva Edison in 1874, which enabled Western Union to save money by greatly increasing the number of messages the company could send without building new lines. It also allowed the company to use its existing lines more efficiently to meet seasonal increases in message traffic and to lease excess capacity for private lines.

1874 Forstner bit

* Forstner bits, also known as Forstner flange bits or webfoot augers, bore precise, flat-bottomed holes in wood, in any orientation with respect to the wood grain. Forstner bits can cut on the edge of a block of wood, and can cut overlapping holes. Because of the flat bottom to the hole, they are useful for drilling through veneer already glued to add an inlay. Forstner bits were invented and patented by Benjamin Forstner in 1874.

1874 QWERTY

* QWERTY is the most used modern-day keyboard layout on English-language computer and typewriter keyboards. It takes its name from the first six characters seen in the far left of the keyboard’s top row of letters. The QWERTY design was invented and patented by Christopher Sholes in 1874.

1875 Electric dental drill

* A dental drill is a small, high-speed drill used in dentistry to remove decayed tooth material prior to the insertion of a dental filling. George F. Green of Kalamazoo, Michigan invented the electric powered device to drill teeth in 1875.

1875 Mimeograph

* The stencil duplicator or mimeograph machine is a low-cost printing press that works by forcing ink through a stencil onto paper. Once prepared, the stencil is wrapped around the ink-filled drum of the rotary machine. When a blank sheet of paper is drawn between the rotating drum and a pressure roller, ink is forced through the holes on the stencil onto the paper. Thomas Alva Edison invented the mimeograph in 1875.

1876 Synthesizer

* The first electric synthesizer was invented in 1876 by Elisha Gray who accidentally discovered that he could control sound from a self vibrating electromagnetic circuit and in doing so, invented a basic single note oscillator. This musical telegraph used steel reeds whose oscillations were created and transmitted, over a telephone line, by electromagnets. Gray also built a simple loudspeaker device in later models consisting of a vibrating diaphragm in a magnetic field to make the oscillator audible.

1876 Airbrush

* An airbrush is a small, air-operated tool that sprays various media including ink and dye, but most often paint by a process of nebulization. Spray guns developed from the airbrush and are still considered a type of airbrush. The first airbrush was invented in 1876 by Francis Edgar Stanley of Newton, Massachusetts.

1876 Tattoo machine

* A tattoo machine is a hand-held device generally used to create a tattoo, a permanent marking of the skin with ink. The basic machine, which was called Stencil-Pens, was invented by Thomas Alva Edison and patented in the United States in 1876. It was originally intended to be used as an engraving device, but in 1891, Sean Casey discovered that Edison’s machine could be modified and used to introduce ink into the skin, and later patented it as a tube and needle system serving as an ink reservoir.

1877 Phonograph

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890), under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Novels

* ”The Creator” (first magazine publication 1935, first book publication 1946)

* ”Cosmic Engineers”, first published as a “short novel” in ”Astounding Science Fiction”, February 1939, March 1939, and April 1939; expanded slightly for novel publication, 1950. A crew is piped to the edge of known space, where metal-men Cosmic Engineers need help to prevent two universes from colliding, while opposing Hellhounds want destruction and chaos.

* ”Empire” (1951) (”Galaxy novel” #7)

* ”Time and Again” (1951) Alternate paperback title: ”First He Died”. When a long-lost spaceman returns to Earth from a distant planet where our “souls” may live, his fuddled observations spark a religious schism and war.

* ”City” (1952) In the far future, only dogs and robots are left on Earth to recount the old stories and debate whether Man ever existed at all. “Epilog” was added in 1981.

* ”Ring Around the Sun” (1953) A man’s unique psychic gift allows him to step into parallel “quantum” earths – a ring around the sun – where he may become mankind’s last chance for survival.

* ”Time is the Simplest Thing” (1961) A paranormal who telepathically travels to other planets brings back an alien consciousness that can manipulate time. He’ll need the help as humans rise to wipe out “parries”.

* ”The Trouble With Tycho” (1961) A lunar prospector investigates the crater Tycho where spacecraft have disappeared.

* ”They Walked Like Men” (1962) A newsman learns alien “bowling balls” that can take any form are buying up the Earth.

* ”Way Station” (1963) 1964 Hugo Award Winner. A Civil War veteran is a caretaker of a secret Way Station, a transfer point for aliens. But the outside world is snooping around, and their blundering may endanger all of humanity.

* ”All Flesh Is Grass” (1965) The town of Millville is trapped in a bubble by an alien hive-race of purple flowers. It’s established a toehold for mutual cooperation – or invasion.

* ”Why Call them Back From Heaven? ” (1967) A man becomes embroiled in a scandal at a wealthy cryogenic corporation.

* ”The Werewolf Principle” (1967) An astronaut returns to Earth with two different creatures trapped inside him, so in times of stress morphs into either a “werewolf” or an impregnable pyramid.

* ”The Goblin Reservation” (1968) A traveller teleporting home learns he was murdered a week before by either sneaking aliens or their rivals, the leprechauns and trolls of the local reservation.

* ”Out of Their Minds” (1970) A newsman is hunted by werewolves, dinosaurs, sea serpents, and other creatures from human imagination, and no one will tell him why.

* ”Destiny Doll” (1971) Four humans explore the mysteries of an eerie deserted planet.

* ”A Choice of Gods” (1972) After 99.99% of the human race has disappeared, people discover they have lifespans of five or six thousand years.

* ”Cemetery World” (1973) Earth has been turned into a vast and silent cemetery. A composer and a treasure-hunter have come to venture past the walls into the wilderness, where they find renegades, war machines, steel wolves, and ghosts whispering answers.

* ”Our Children’s Children” (1974) Refugees from 500 years in the future arrive through time tunnels – and hard behind them come ravening monsters.

* ”Enchanted Pilgrimage” (1975)

* ”Shakespeare’s Planet” (1976) Two explorers, a robot, a warrior, and even an inky “pond” are stuck on a dead-end planet because the star-tunnel is locked. Yet ”something” is about to happen.

* ”A Heritage of Stars” (1977) In a primitive world where technology collapsed, a woodsrunner, a witch, and a frontiering robot seek answers at The Place of Going to the Stars.

* ”The Fellowship of the Talisman” (1978) On a parallel Earth perpetually laid waste by the Harriers of the Horde, a young man must ferry what may be a true account of Jesus’s teachings to distant London. He’s helped by a lonely ghost, a goblin, a demon, and a warrior woman riding a griffin.

* ”Mastodonia” (1978) (published as ”Catface” in the UK, a considerably expanded and re-written version of Simak’s 1950s short story of the same name which was also broadcast on the ”X Minus One”). A cat-faced alien stranded in Wisconsin befriends locals, then time-engineers portals into prehistoric epochs. The locals start a tourism company for big-game hunters, and maybe a new country: Mastodonia.

* ”The Visitors” (1980)

* ”Project Pope” (1981) On the planet End of Nothing, robots have labored a thousand years to build a computerized infallible pope to eke out the ultimate truth. Their work is preempted when a human Listener discovers what might be the planet Heaven.

* ”Where the Evil Dwells” (1982) Adventurers seeking a lost fiancee’ and cathedral enter the Empty Lands, where even Roman Legions get slaughtered.

* ”Special Deliverance” (1982) A college professor and other oddballs are dropped onto a bleak world near a giant blue cube – and no clue how to proceed.

* ”Highway of Eternity” (1986) AKA ”Highway to Eternity”. A man who can “step around a corner” gets scattered across time alongside futuristic refugees. All are fleeing super-advanced humans who have transcended into pure thought — and expect everyone else to come along.

* ”Limiting factor”

Collections

* ”Strangers in the Universe ” (1956) (contents revised in 1957 and 1958). Paperback contains 7 of 11 stories from hardback edition: “Target Generation”, “Mirage”, “Beachhead”, “The Answers”, “Retrograde Evolution”, “The Fence”, and “Shadow Show”.

* ”The Worlds of Clifford Simak ” (1960)

* ”Aliens for Neighbours” (1961) (UK reprint of ”The Worlds of Clifford Simak”)

* ”All the Traps of Earth and Other Stories ” (1962) (contents revised in 1963) Contains “All the Traps of Earth”, “Good Night, Mr. James”, “Drop Dead”, “The Sitters”, “Installment Plan”, and “Condition of Employment”.

* ”Other Worlds of Clifford Simak” (1962) (abridgment of ”The Worlds of Clifford Simak” (1961) Contains “Dusty Zebra”, “Carbon Copy”, “Founding Father”, “Idiot’s Crusade”, “Death Scene”, and “Green Thumb”.

* ”The Night of the Puudly” (1964) (UK reprint of ”All the Traps of Earth and Other Stories”)

* ”Worlds Without End ” (1964) Contains “Worlds Without End”, “The Spaceman’s Van Gogh”, and “Full Cycle”.

* ”Best Science Fiction Stories of Clifford Simak ” (1967)

* ”So Bright the Vision ” (1968) Contains “The Golden Bugs”, “Leg. Forst.”, “So Bright the Vision,” and “Galactic Chest”.

* ”The Best of Clifford D. Simak” (1975) Contains “1939: Madness from Mars”, “1940: Sunspot Purge”, “1958: The Sitters”, “1959: A Death in the House”, “1960: Final Gentlemen”, “1961: Shotgun Cure”, “1963: Day of Truce”, “1965: Small Deer”, “1970: The Thing in the Stone”, and “1971: The Autumn Land”.

* ”Skirmish: The Great Short Fiction of Clifford D. Simak ” (1977) Contains “Huddling Place”, “Desertion”, “Skirmish”, “Good Night, Mr. James”, “The Sitters”, “The Big Front Yard”, “All the Traps of Earth”, “The Thing in the Stone”, “The Autumn Land”, and “The Ghost of a Model T”.

* ”Brother And Other Stories ” (1986)

* ”The Marathon Photograph and Other Stories ” (1986)

* ”Off-Planet” (1989) Contains “Construction Shack”, “Ogre”, “Junkyard”, “The Observer”, “The World That Couldn’t Be”, “Shadow World” and “Mirage”.

* ”The Autumn Land and Other Stories” (1990)

* ”Immigrant and Other Stories” (1991)

* ”The Creator and Other Stories” (1993)

* ”Over the River and Through the Woods: The Best Short Fiction of Clifford D. Simak ” (1996)

* ”The Civilization Game and Other Stories ” (1997)

Science Fiction Stories

First publication in chronological order. Early on Simak wrote some war and Western pulp stories not included here.

* “The World of the Red Sun”, ”Wonder Stories”, December, 1931.

* “The Voice in the Void”, ”Wonder Stories Quarterly”, Spring, 1932.

* “Mutiny on Mercury”, ”Wonder Stories”, March, 1932.

* “Hellhounds of the Cosmos”, ”Astounding”, June, 1932.

* “The Asteroid of Gold”, ”Wonder Stories”, November, 1932.

* “The Creator”, ”Marvel Tales”, Volume 1, #4, March/April, 1935.

* “Rule 18”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, July, 1938.

* “Hunger Death”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, October, 1938.

* “Reunion on Ganymede”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, November, 1938.

* “The Loot of Time”, ”Thrilling Wonder Stories”, December, 1938. AKA “S.O.S in Time” (unauthorized).

* “Cosmic Engineers”, short novel in three parts in ”Astounding Science Fiction”, February 1939, March 1939, and April 1939. A crew is piped to the edge of known space to help prevent two universes from colliding.

* “Madness from Mars”, ”Thrilling Wonder Stories”, April, 1939. The fourth, and only, spaceship to return from Mars holds an insane crew and a Martian “furball”.

* “The Space Beasts”, ”Astonishing Science Fiction”, April, 1940.

* “Rim of the Deep”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, May, 1940.

* “Hermit of Mars”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, June, 1939.

* “Clerical Error”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, August, 1940.

* “Sunspot Purge”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, November, 1940. Two newspapermen fly into the future to report how sunspots have affected humanity.

* “Masquerade”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, March, 1941. AKA “Operation Mercury”.

* “Earth for Inspiration”, ”Thrilling Wonder Stories”, April, 1941.

* “Spaceship in a Flask”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, July, 1941.

* “The Street That Wasn’t There”, ”Comet”, July, 1941. AKA “The Lost Street”. Co-written with Carl Jacobi. A disgraced physicist watches his city disappear as people stop believing it exists.

* “Tools”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, July, 1942.

* “Shadow of Life”, ”Astounding Science Fiction, March, 1943.

* “Hunch”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, July, 1943.

* “Infiltration”, ”Science Fiction Stories”, July, 1943.

* “Message from Mars”, ”Planet Stories”, Fall, 1943.

* “Ogre”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, January, 1944.

* “Lobby”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, April, 1944.

* “City”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, May, 1944. Since everyone moved to the country with their atomic generators and personal aircraft, the cities are largely abandoned. What’s left of the city councils will burn the empty houses – unless someone has a better idea.

* “Mr. Meek – Musketeer”, ”Planet Stories”, Summer, 1944.

* “Huddling Place”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, July, 1944. Men left the cities for the comforts of home, and now can’t leave home – not even to save a life.

* “Mr. Meek Plays Polo”, ”Planet Stories”, Fall, 1944.

* “Census”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, September, 1944. In the first census in 300 years, an enumerator discovers what may be the next step in human evolution.

* “Desertion”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, November, 1944. When survey teams fail to return from Jupiter’s harsh surface, an aging administrator and his old dog volunteer for a one-way biological conversion. (One of the first stories about Pantropy.)

* “Paradise”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, June, 1946. A volunteer has returned from lizard-conversion on Jupiter (seen in “Desertion”) with a promise of paradise.

* “Hobbies”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, November, 1946. While the last few humans kill time with hobbies, talking dogs and sentient robots explore uncharted sciences.

* “Aesop”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, December, 1947. Animals have inherited the world, and “cobblies” (other-dimensional demons) have come, so Jenkins the faithful butler takes the last remaining humans away.

* “Eternity Lost”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, July, 1949.

* “Limiting Factor”, ”Startling Stories”, November, 1949. A survey team finds a shining planet is one vast computer, built to calculate – what?

* “Bathe Your Bearings in Blood!”, ”Amazing Stories”, 1950. AKA “Skirmish”. A newspaper reporter discovers machines are coming alive and revolting, the first skirmish in a war to come.

* “The Call from Beyond”, ”Super Science Stories”, May, 1950.

* “Seven Came Back” in ”Amazing Stories”, October, 1950. AKA “Mirage”. A stranded archeologist who befriends Martians is shown an ancient city that glitters like a mirage.

* “The Trouble with Ants”, ”Fantastic Adventures”, January, 1951. AKA “The Simple Way”. Evolved ants and their robot ants are building so fast they’ll cover the Earth, and there’s no simple way to stop them.

* “Second Childhood”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, February, 1951.

* “Good Night, Mr. James”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, March, 1951. AKA “The Duplicate Man” and “The Night of the Puudly”. A lethal alien ”puudly” is loose and ready to breed. Mr. James hunts to kill it – or does he?

* “You’ll Never Go Home Again”, ”Fantastic Adventures”, July, 1951. AKA “Beachhead”. A survey team brutally pacifies a toehold on an alien planet, then learns you can’t plan for the unknown.

* “Courtesy”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, August, 1951.

* “The Fence” in ”Space Science Fiction”, September, 1952. A man with a dismal PS (Personal Satisfaction rating) finds intrigue in an invisible fence that can’t be crossed.

* “And The Truth Shall Make You Free” in ”Future Science Fiction”, March, 1953. AKA “The Answers”. A space wanderer finds the long-lost mutant strain of humans and the universal truths they uncovered.

* “Retrograde Evolution” in ”Science Fiction Plus”, April, 1953. Spacefaring traders are stumped when an alien race evolves from savages to geniuses overnight.

* “Kindergarten”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, July, 1953.

* “Worrywart”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, September, 1953. A newspaperman finds a recluse who can seemingly fix any problem just by wishing it better.

* “Shadow Show” in ”Fantasy & Science Fiction”, November, 1953. A colony of scientists struggle to develop artificial life. For entertainment, they role-play in a neverending melodrama. Until art begins to imitate life.

* “Contraption” in ”Star Science Fiction Stories #1”, 1953.

* “Immigrant”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, March, 1954.

* “Junkyard”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, May, 1953. Explorers touch down on a planet containing only a junked spaceship and a stone tower. Then they discover they can’t get leave because the engineers have forgotten how to!

* “The Questing of Foster Adams”, ”Fantastic Universe”, August/September, 1953.

* “Spacebred Generations” in ”Science Fiction Plus”, August, 1953. AKA “Target Generation”. A generation ship that’s traveled for 1,000 years suddenly stops. Only one man, a “sinner” who can read books, will risk his life to complete the mission.

* “Neighbor”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, June, 1954.

* “Green Thumb” in ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, July, 1954. A county agent finds an alien plant hiding in his garden, and learns why a “green thumb” is a blessing and a curse.

* “Idiot’s Crusade” in ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, October, 1954. The village idiot has been possessed by an anthropologist alien, but now the “idiot” has ideas of his own.

* “How-2″, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, November, 1954.

* “Dusty Zebra”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, December, 1954. When common household items disappear from his desk top, a salesman seizes the opportunity to trade for alien what-nots.

* “Project Mastodon”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, March, 1955.

* “Full Cycle”, ”Science Fiction Stories”, November, 1955. An out-of-work history teacher buys a trailer and becomes a nomad – as has everyone else – but conceives an idea how to improve life for everyone.

* “Worlds Without End”, ”Future #31”, 1956. When the Director of Dreams mysteriously dies, a bureaucrat is promoted – into a conspiracy.

* “The Spaceman’s Van Gogh”, ”Science Fiction Stories”, March, 1956. A seeker finds the final resting place of a famous painter who saw something no one had ever seen before.

* “Drop Dead”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, July, 1956. An agricultural survey team on a new planet finds a one-stop-shopping animal that could end hunger. Dare they eat it?

* “So Bright the Vision”, ”Fantastic Universe”, August, 1956. A luckless writer can’t afford a new “yarner” machine to create stories, until he finds an alien “blanket” that grants him visions.

* “Honorable Opponent,” ”Galaxy Science Fiction, August, 1956.

* “Galactic Chest”, ”Science Fiction Stories”, September, 1956. A frustrated newsman attributes local serendipities to brownies, then gets a surprise.

* “Jackpot”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, October, 1956.

* “Operation Stinky”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, April, 1957.

* “Founding Father”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, May, 1957. A lonely colonist is responsible for raising one thousand embryos on a distant planet, but he’s no longer sure what’s real.

* “Lulu”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, June, 1957.

* “Shadow World”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, September, 1957. On an alien planet, a construction crew is pestered by “Shadows” that copy everything they do – literally.

* “Death Scene”, ”Infinity Science Fiction”, October, 1957. Everyone on Earth gains the power to see a day into the future, but some visions are better not “seen”.

* “Carbon Copy”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, December, 1957. A real estate salesman is making a fortune leasing houses to families – except the houses remain empty.

* “Nine Lives”, ”Short Stories: A Man’s Magazine”, December, 1957.

* “The World That Couldn’t Be”, in ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, January, 1958. A plantation owner on an alien world tracks the strange animal Cytha, and gets a lesson in xeno-ecology.

* “Leg. Forst.”, ”Infinity Science Fiction”, April, 1958. A skinflint stamp dealer discovers an alien stamp is reorganizing his collection – and himself.

* “The Sitters”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, April, 1958. A prodigal-son spaceman brought home gentle alien “Sitters” to raise the town’s children – except they don’t remain children.

* “The Money Tree”, ”Venture Science Fiction”, July, 1958.

* “The Civilization Game”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, November, 1958.

* “The Big Front Yard”, ”Astounding Science Fiction”, October, 1958. When a spatial gateway splits his house and opens onto another world, a Yankee trader drives in to explore – and to dicker with the locals. Winner 1959 Hugo for Best Novelette.

* “Installment Plan”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, February, 1959. A work gang shows up on a remote planet to collect the harvest of ”podars” needed for medicine, but the natives won’t sell.

* ”No Life of Their Own”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, August, 1959.

* “A Death in the House”, in ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, October, 1959. A hillman finds a smashed spaceship and a dying alien, and buries it. Then is visited again.

* “Final Gentlemen”, ”Fantasy & Science Fiction”, January, 1960. An oracle computer seems to be steering humanity’s destiny, and a defamed writer doesn’t like it.

* “Crying Jag”, in ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, February, 1960. A visiting alien latches onto people to hear their sad stories.

* “All the Traps of Earth”, ”Fantasy & Science Fiction”, March, 1960. A runaway robot gains the ability to telekinetically fix any problem, yet can’t fix his own problem: the need to be needed.

* “The Gleaners”, ”IF”, March, 1960.

* “Condition of Employment”, in ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, April, 1960. Only homesickness can induce spacemen to risk their lives, so it’s induced.

* “The Golden Bugs”, ”Fantasy & Science Fiction”, June, 1960. An insurance salesman finds an agate boulder in his garden and his house full of golden (alien?) ladybugs.

* “Shotgun Cure”, ”Fantasy & Science Fiction”, January, 1961. An alien gives a country doctor a vaccine to wipe out mankind’s diseases – including a few we never recognized.

* “Horrible Example”, ”Analog Science Fiction”, March, 1961.

* “The Shipshape Miracle”, ”IF” (”Worlds of IF Science Fiction”), January, 1963. A slippery character stranded on a remote planet is “rescued” by a mysterious black ship.

* “Day of Truce”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, February, 1963. The local “Punks” take advantage of the once-a-year truce to ransack the last fortified house in the suburbs.

* “Physician to the Universe”, ”Fantastic Science Fiction”, March, 1963.

* “A Pipeline to Destiny”, ”HKLPLOD #4”, Summer, 1963.

* “New Folk’s Home,” ”Analog Science Fiction”, July, 1963.

* “Small Deer”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, October, 1965. A tinkerer fires up a time machine and learns what killed off the dinosaurs – and may come back.

* “Over the River and Through the Woods”, in ”Amazing Stories”, May, 1965. A farm family c. 1900 is visited by their great-great-great-grandchildren.

* “Buckets of Diamonds”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, April, 1969.

* “I Am Crying All Inside”, ”Galaxy Science Fiction”, August, 1969.

* “The Thing in the Stone”, ”IF (Worlds of If Science Fiction)”, March, 1970. A man who suffered brain damage can see the ancient past and hear the traffic of the stars – and the creature trapped under a mountain.

* “The Autumn Land”, ”Fantasy & Science Fiction”, October, 1971. An engineer drifting through life finds himself trapped in a village where nothing ever happens.

* “To Walk a City’s Street”, ”Infinity #3”, 1972.

* “The Observer”, ”Analog Science Fiction”, May, 1972.

* “Construction Shack”, ”Worlds of If”, January/February, 1973.

* “UNIVAC: 2200″, ”Frontiers 1: Tomorrow’s Alternatives”, 1973.

* “The Marathon Photograph”, ”Threads of Time”, 1974.

* “The Birch Clump Cylinder”, ”Stellar #1”, 1974.

* “The Ghost of a Model T”, ”Epoch”, 1975. A lonely old man gets one last ride through his happy youth.

* “Senior Citizen”, ”Fantasy & Science Fiction”, October, 1975.

* “Unsilent Spring”, ”Stellar #2”, 1976. A country doctor suspects an epidemic of malaise is due to a lack(?) of DDT. Co-written with Richard Simak.

* “Auk House”, ”Stellar #3”, 1977. An artist enters a remote house only to learn it actually sits in prehistoric North America, with no way back.

* “Brother”, ”Fantasy & Science Fiction”, October, 1977.

* “Party Line”, ”Destinies”, 1978. Volunteers risk their sanity by sending their minds into the void to query alien intelligences.

* “Grotto of the Dancing Deer”, ”Analog Science Fiction”, April, 1980. An archeologist discovers ancient cartoony cave paintings, and the artist who painted them. Winner of Hugo and Nebula awards for Best Short Story, 1981.

* “The Whistling Well”, ”Dark Forces”, 1980. A genealogist unearths his ancestral home, and wonders if dinosaurs had gods.

* “Epilog”, added to ”City”, 1981. Humans, animals, and even ants are gone, so it’s time for Jenkins the robot to go too.

* “Byte Your Tongue!”, ”Stellar #6”, 1981.

Non-fiction

* ”The Solar System: Our New Front Yard” (1962)

* ”Trilobite, Dinosaur, and Man: The Earth’s Story” (1965)

* ”Wonder and Glory: The Story of the Universe” (1969)

* ”Prehistoric Man: The Story of Man’s Rise to Civilization” (1971)

Edited books

* ”From Atoms to Infinity: Readings in Modern Science” (1965)

* ”The March of Science” (1971)

* ”Nebula Award Stories #6” (1971)

* ”The Best of Astounding” (1978)

Film adaptations

* “Good Night, Mr. James” adapted as “The Duplicate Man” on ”The Outer Limits” in 1964. Simak notes this is a “vicious story – so vicious that it is the only one of my stories adapted to television.”

Audiotapes

* ”Clifford D. Simak; Over the River and Through the Woods (read by Jonathan Frakes)” (1995)

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Clifford D. Simak, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Buffyverse

*”Visitors” (1999) (with Laura Anne Gilman)

*”Deep Water” (2000) (with Laura Anne Gilman)

Find Your Fate Junior Transformers

9. ”The Invisibility Factor” (1986)

Bardic Choices (with Mercedes Lackey)

1. ”A Cast of Corbies” (1994)

Prince of the Sidhe

1. ”The Shattered Oath” (1995)

2. ”Forging the Runes” (1996)

Novels

*”Golden Girl and the Crystal of Doom ”(1986)

*”The Shining Falcon” (1989) — based on the Russian fairy tale ”The Feather of Finist the Falcon”

*”The Horse of Flame” (1990)

*”Child of Faerie, Child of Earth” (1992)

*”A Strange and Ancient Name” (1992)

*”Windleaf” (1993)

*”Gleaming Bright” (1994)

*”King’s Son, Magic’s Son” (1994) — based on the Child ballad ”King Estmere”

*”Son of Darkness” (1998)

*”Barrel Racing” (2000)

*”Bull Riding(2000)

Series contributed to

*”Secret of the Unicorn Queen”

*”Swept Away!” (1988)

*”The Dark Gods” (1989)

*”Swept Away / Sun Blind” (2004) (with Gwen Hansen)

Bard’s Tale

*1. ”Castle of Deception” (1992) (with Mercedes Lackey)

*4. ”The Chaos Gate” (1994)

Star Trek (with Susan M Shwartz)

*”Vulcan’s Forge” (1997)

*”Vulcan’s Heart” (1999)

*”Exodus: Vulcan’s Soul Book One” (2004)

*”Exiles: Vulcan’s Soul Trilogy Book Two” (2006)

*”Epiphany: Vulcan’s Soul Trilogy Book Three” (2007)

Highlander

*”Highlander: The Captive Soul” (1998)

*Mage Knight

**4. ”The Black Thorn Gambit” (2004)

*Gene Roddenberry’s Andromeda

**4. ”Through the Looking Glass” (2005)

Anthologies edited

*”A Sampler of Jewish-American Folklore” (1992)

*”Rachel the Clever: And Other Jewish Folktales” (1993)

*”Orphans of the Night” (1995)

*”In Celebration of Lammas Night” (1995)

*”Trickster Tales: Forty Folk Stories from Around the World” (1996)

*”Lammas Night” (1996) (with Mercedes Lackey)

*”Merlin’s Kin: World Tales of the Heroic Magician” (1998)

*”Told Tales: Nine Folktales from Around the World” (1999)

*”Magic Hoofbeats: Fabulous Horse Tales” (2004)

*”Young Warriors: Stories Of Strength” (2005) (with Tamora Pierce)

Non fiction

*”Indian Tribes of North America” (1986)

*”Greasy Grimy Gopher Guts: The Subversive Folklore of Childhood” (1995) (with T K F Weisskopf)

*”The First Americans: Spirit of the Land and the People” (1996)

*”Xena: All I Need to Know I Learned from the Warrior Princess” (1998)

*”Artificial Intelligence” (2000) (with Robert L Perry)

*”Build Your Own Website” (2000) (with Robert L Perry)

*”Multimedia Magic” (2000) (with Robert L Perry)

*”Personal Computer Communications” (2000) (with Robert L Perry)

*”Bill Gates: Computer King” (2000)

*”Jeff Bezos: King of Amazon” (2001)

*”Larry Ellison: Sheer Nerve” (2001) (with Daniel Ehrenhaft)

*”The Ear: Learning How We Hear” (2001)

*”The Upper Limbs: Learning about How We Use Our Arms, Elbows, Forearms, and Hands” (2001)

*”Samuel de Champlain: Explorer of the Great Lakes Region and Founder of Quebec” (2002)

*”Henry Hudson: English Explorer of the Northwest Passage” (2002)

*”Mythology for Storytellers” (2002)

*”Competitive Soccer for Girls” (2002)

*”Deep Space Observation Satellites” (2003)

*”The History of the Internet” (2003)

*”The History of the Personal Computer” (2003)

*”Internet Safety” (2003)

*”Flakes and Flurries: A Book about Snow” (2003)

*”Gusts and Gales: A Book about Wind” (2003)

*”Nature’s Fireworks: A Book about Lightning” (2003)

*”Splish Splash!: A Book about Rain” (2003)

*”Sunshine: A Book about Sunlight” (2003)

*”Shapes in the Sky: A Book about Clouds” (2003)

*”The Cold War” (2003)

*”Your Travel Guide to Ancient China” (2003)

*”Your Travel Guide to Ancient Israel” (2003)

*”Geothermal Power” (2003)

*”Hydroelectric Power” (2003)

*”Nuclear Power” (2003)

*”Solar Power” (2003)

*”Wind Power” (2003)

*”It’s a Www. World” (2004)

*”Fossil Fuel Power” (2004)

*”Queen Lydia Liliuokalani, Last Ruler of Hawaii” (2004)

Anthologies contribution

*”First Contact” (1987)

*”Alternate Warriors” (1993)

*”Alien Pregnant by Elvis” (1994)

*”Weird Tales from Shakespeare” (1994

*”Witch Fantastic” (1994)

*”Xanadu 3” (1994)

*”Chicks in Chainmail” (1995)

*”Sherlock Holmes in Orbit” (1995)

*”Superheroes” (1995)

*”Don’t Forget Your Spacesuit, Dear” (1996)

*”Future Net” (1996)

*”Otherwere” (1996)

*”The Shimmering Door” (1996)

*”Space Opera” (1996)

*”Elf Magic” (1997)

*”Return of the Dinosaurs” (1997)

*”Wizard Fantastic” (1997)

*”Zodiac Fantastic” (1997)

*”Black Cats and Broken Mirrors” (1998)

*”Chicks ‘n Chained Males” (1999)

*”Children of the Night” (1999)

*”Flights of Fantasy” (1999)

*”Twice Upon a Time” (1999)

*”Civil War Fantastic” (2000)

*”Guardsmen of Tomorrow” (2000)

*”Perchance to Dream” (2000)

Short stories

*”The Magic-stealer” (1991)

*”Monsieur Verne and the Martian Invasion” (1993)

*”Ancient Magics, Ancient Hope” (1994)

*”The Defender of Central Park” (1994)

*”Racehorse Predicts the Future!” (1994)

*”The Case of the Purloined L’Isitek” (1995)

*”Old Woman Who Created Life” (1995)

*”Teacher’s Pet” (1995)

*”The Coyote Virus” (1996)

*”I’ve Got the Horse, Right Here” (1996)

*”Mother Knows Best” (1996)

*”One Late Night, with Jackal” (1996)

*”A Song of Strange Revenge” (1996)

*”Fangs for the Memory” (1997)

*”A Game of Mehen” (1997)

*”Ilian” (1997)

*”Netted” (1997)

*”Wild Hope” (1997)

*”The Cat Who Wasn’t Black” (1998)

*”Feeding Frenzy Or the Further Adventures of the Frog Prince” (1999)

*”A Question of Faith” (1999)

*”Shiftless” (1999)

*”The Dreams That Stuff Is Made of” (2000)

*”Images” (2000)

*”The Silver Flame” (2000)

*”Witch-Horse”

Television

The Adventures of the Galaxy Rangers (1986)

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Josepha Sherman, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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*Henson, H.K., and K.E. Drexler: ”Vapor-phase Fabrication of Massive Structures in Space”, Space Manufacturing AIAA 1977

*Henson, H.K., and K.E. Drexler: ”Gas Entrained Solids: A Heat Transfer Fluid for Use in Space” Space Manufacturing AIAA 1979

*H. Keith Henson and Arel Lucas: [http://groups.google.ca/group/sci.space.policy/msg/3654d08deee4f4f0?hl=en& STAR LAWS] ”Reason Magazine”, Aug., 1982

*Henson, H.K.: [http://cfpm.org/~majordom/memetics/2000/16177.html Memes, L5 and the religion of the space colonies]. ”L5 News”, September 1985, pp.& 5–8.

*Henson, H.K.: [http://cfpm.org/~majordom/memetics/2000/16179.html More on Memes] ”L5 News”, June 1986

*Henson, H.Keith: [http://groups.google.ca/group/alt.mindcontrol/msg/103e03bce6100cac?hl=en& MEMETICS AND THE MODULAR-MIND] ”Analog” August 1987

*Henson, Keith: [http://www.hackcanada.com/blackcrawl/elctrnic/megascal.txt] “Memetics: The Science of Information Viruses”]. ”Whole Earth Review” no. 57, 1987

*Henson, H. Keith: [http://www.hackcanada.com/blackcrawl/elctrnic/megascal.txt MegaScale Engineering and Nanotechnology], 1987

*Henson, H. Keith: [http://www.evolutionzone.com/kulturezone/memetics/henson.memes.metamemes.and.politics Memes Meta-Memes and Politics], 1988

*H. Keith Henson and Arel Lucas: [http://www.operatingthetan.com/1990-memes.txt Memes, Evolution, and Creationism], 1989,

*H. Keith Henson: [http://cypherpunks.venona.com/date/1992/10/msg00092.html Green Rage]

*H. Keith Henson: and Arel Lucas: [http://www.aeiveos.com/~bradbury/Authors/Engineering/Henson-HK/ATU.html A Theoretical Understanding], 1993

*Keith Henson: [http://groups.google.ca/group/alt.religion.scientology/msg/d99839d50985d2ab?hl=en& ''Wogs at Cause--Car chases and other modern courtroom phenomena] (adapted from the version published in Biased Journalism)” Also [http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2006/4/21/171516/867]

*H. Keith Henson: [http://groups.google.ca/group/alt.religion.scientology/msg/dad126ccfaae1658?hl=en& ''South of the Border at the Road Kill Cafe (Part 1)'']

*Henson, H. Keith: [http://human-nature.com/nibbs/02/cults.html ''Sex, Drugs, and Cults.] An evolutionary psychology perspective on why and how cult memes get a drug-like hold on people, and what might be done to mitigate the effects”, The Human Nature Review 2002 Volume 2: 343-355

*H. Keith Henson: [http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2006/4/17/194059/296 Evolutionary Psychology, Memes and the Origin of War.] Also [http://www.mankindquarterly.org/summer2006_henson.html]

*H. Keith Henson: [http://eugen.leitl.org/A-2000-tonne-per-day-Space-Elevator1.ppt ''A 2000 tonne per day Space Elevator''] ESA Conference presentation Feb 2007

*H. Keith Henson: [http://www.terasemjournals.org/GN0202/henson.html], ”The Clinic Seed—Africa.”

*Keith Henson: [http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2007/10/30/18253/301], ”Tunnel of Love.”

*H. Keith Henson: ”Beamed Energy and the Economics of Space Based Solar Power,” Beamed Energy Propulsion: 6th International Symposium, American Inst. of Physics, 2010 ISBN-13: 978-0735407749

*[http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/k/keith_henson.html Keith Henson quotes]

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Keith Henson, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Medieval history=

11th and 12th centuries

The Welsh border situation remained unsettled however, and in the decades after 1250 security grew significantly worse, as the Welsh prince Llwelyn up Gruffudd conducted numerous raids into English territories. The Wye valley and Goodrich were particularly affected by these raids.

Accordingly William de Valence began to build a much larger castle around the original keep from the 1280s onwards, demolishing Marshal’s earlier work. As part of the extremely expensive construction work, Valence used oak trees drawn from several royal forests. Valence was building at the same time that his nephew Edward I was constructing his major castles in the north of Wales, and the concentric castle that he built at Goodrich is both very similar in design and a rarity in England itself. Valence’s son, Aymer de Valence built an additional line of outer defences before his death in 1324, including the external barbican, inspired by that at the Tower of London, and for which the earlier Valence barbican at Pembroke may have been an experimental forerunner. The effect was an early success in converting a fortress into a major dwelling, without damaging its defensive arrangements, and influenced the later castle conversion at Berkeley.

The castle then passed to Aymer’s niece, Elizabeth de Comyn, a well-connected young noblewoman. By the middle of the 1320s, however, England was in the grip of the oppressive rule of the Marcher lords Hugh le Despenser the older and his son Hugh Despenser the younger, the royal favourites of King Edward II. As part of a “sweeping revenge” on their rivals, especially in the Marches, the Despensers illegally seized a wide range of properties, particularly from vulnerable targets such as widows, wives whose husbands were out of favour with the king or unmarried women. Upon her inheritance, Hugh le Despenser the younger promptly kidnapped Elizabeth in London and transported her to Herefordshire to be imprisoned in her own castle at Goodrich. Threatened with death, Elizabeth was finally forced to sign over the castle and other lands to the Despensers in April 1325. Elizabeth then married Richard Talbot, the 2nd Baron Talbot, who seized back the castle in 1326 shortly before Queen Isabella of France landed in England and deposed both the Despensers and her husband Edward II; Talbot and Elizabeth regained their legal title to the castle the following year. Richard later received permission from Isabella’s son Edward III to create a dungeon under the keep for holding prisoners.

15th and 16th centuries

Goodrich remained the favourite home of the Richard Talbot’s descendants for many years. During the early years, the security situation in Wales remained of concern. Owain Glyndŵr rebelled against English rule in 1402 and Welsh forces invaded the Goodrich area in 1404 and 1405. Gilbert Talbot was responsible for fighting back the Welsh advance and securing the castle. As time went on, however, the threat began to diminish. During the 15th century the Talbots considerably expanded the size of the lord’s quarters in the castle and provided additional accommodation for servants and retainers.

The Talbots became the Earls of Shrewsbury in 1442, shortly before the Wars of the Roses in which they supported the Lancastrian faction. The wars meant that the Talbots were frequently fighting elsewhere in England, and often staying at their castle in Sheffield. John Talbot died in the Lancastrian defeat at Northampton in 1460, and the castle was forfeited and transferred to the Yorkist William Herbert. John’s son, also called John Talbot, later made his peace with the king, however, and regained control of his lands and Goodrich Castle before his death in 1473.

By the 16th century the castle was becoming less fashionable as a residence. Goodrich was too distant from London to be a useful power base, and was gradually abandoned in favour of more stylish residences, Goodrich continued to be used as a judicial centre however; the antiquarian John Leland noted that the some of the castle was used to hold prisoners for the local court during the 1530s, and the castle ditch was sometimes used to store confiscated cattle taken from local farmers.

In 1616, Gilbert Talbot died with no male heir and Goodrich passed into the hands of Henry Grey, Earl of Kent. The Greys chose not to live at Goodrich, but instead rented the castle to a series of tenants.

English Civil War

Goodrich Castle became the scene of one of the most desperate sieges during the English Civil War in the 1640s, which saw the rival factions of Parliament and the king vie for power across England. In the years before the war, there had been a resurgence of building at the castle. Richard Tyler, a local lawyer, became the tenant and constable of the castle, and during the early 1630s there had been considerable renovation work.

Shortly after the outbreak of war, the Earl of Stamford, with support from Tyler, garrisoned the castle for Parliament until December 1643, when increasing Royalist pressure in the region forced his withdrawal to Gloucester. The castle was then occupied by a garrison led by the Royalist Sir Henry Lingen. The occupation was not peaceful, with Royalist troops burning surrounding farm buildings Tyler himself was imprisoned by Lingen, although not before he had begun to sell off his livestock and other moveable property.

As the Royalist situation deteriorated, the south-west became one of the few remaining Royalist strongholds. Lingen, with 200& men and 90& horses at Goodrich Castle, conducted raids on Parliamentary forces in the region, representing a continuing challenge. No action had been taken, however, to strengthen the castle’s defences with more modern 17th-century earthworks, and the castle remained essentially in its medieval condition.

In 1646, the Parliamentary Colonels John Birch and Robert Kyrle marched south from their successful Siege of Hereford and besieged the castle, with the aim of eliminating one of the few remaining Royalist strongholds. There was some personal animosity between Lingen and Birch, and both were outspoken, impulsive men. Birch’s first move was to prevent further attacks from Lingen, and on 9& March he burned the weakly defended stables in a surprise night attack, driving away the Royalist horses and temporarily denying the Royalist forces’ mobility. Birch was unable to press home his advantage however, and over the next few months Lingen succeeded in replacing some of his horses and resumed his attacks on Parliamentary forces.

In June, Birch returned and besieged the castle itself. He found that it was too strong to be taken by direct attack, and instead began laying down trenches to allow him to bring artillery to bear on the structure. Parliamentary attacks broke the pipe carrying water into the castle, and the cisterns in the courtyard were destroyed by exploding shells, forcing the garrison to depend on the older castle well. With the castle still holding out, Colonel Birch built an enormous mortar called “Roaring Meg”, able to fire a gunpowder-filled shell in weight, in a local forge.

Birch concentrated his efforts on the north-west tower, using his mortar against the masonry and undermining the foundations with his sappers. Lingen responded with a counter-mine tunnel dug out under Parliament’s own tunnel. This would probably have succeeded, but Birch brought his mortar forward under the cover of darkness and launched a close-range attack on the tower, which collapsed and buried Lingen’s counter-mine. Down to their last four barrels of gunpowder and thirty barrels of beer, and with a direct assault now imminent, the Royalists surrendered. According to tradition, the garrison left to the tune of “Sir Henry Lingen’s Fancy”.

Despite the damage, Tyler was able to move back into his castle, which was now protected by a small Parliamentary garrison. After investigation by Parliamentary agents Brown and Selden, however, the castle was slighted the following year, which rendered it impossible to defend. The Countess of Kent, the new owner of the castle, was given £1,000 in damages, but chose not to rebuild the fortification as it was by then virtually uninhabitable.

18th and 19th-century history

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Goodrich Castle, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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On stardate 4040.7, the starship USS ”Enterprise”, commanded by Captain James T. Kirk, is on routine patrol when it encounters the wreckage of the SS ”Beagle”, a survey vessel lost six years earlier. The ”Beagle” was under the command of Captain R. M. Merrick, whom Kirk knew during his academy days. First Officer Spock traces the path of debris back to the ship’s point of origin, near the fourth planet in the previously unexplored FGC 892 System.

The ”Enterprise” soon picks up an old-style television broadcast, with black and white video footage of what appears to be a Roman gladiatorial fight in an arena. One of the gladiators they see killed is named William B. Harrison, identified by records as one of the ”Beagle’s” flight crew.

Kirk forms a landing party consisting of himself, Mr. Spock, and Dr. McCoy, and beams down to the planet to investigate. Soon they are captured by rifle-toting men, revealed to be escaped slaves, who bring the party before their leader Septimus. When the party introduces themselves as “men of peace”, Septimus asks them if they are “children of the Sun.” The crew wonders how, with the culture so devoted to parallelling Roman history, the inhabitants have become sun worshipers since “there was no sun worship among ancient Romans.” (This is not quite true since members of the Roman army were devoted, at least by the 2nd Century AD, to Sol Invictus, the “Unconquered Sun”.) McCoy then responds by saying that they represent many beliefs. Septimus explains he was a Senator until he heard the “words of the Sun” and was made a slave. Although another slave, Flavius, suggests killing the landing party, Septimus overrules him and decides the landing party poses no threat.

As Kirk pages through a gladiatorial magazine, he is astounded to find the cultural development of 892 IV, called “Magna Roma” by the inhabitants, is so similar to that of the ancient Roman Empire back in Earth’s history, but mixed with mid 20th Century technology. He refers to Hodgkin’s Law, and the theory of Parallel Planet Development, where the two worlds developed the same but somehow the Roman Empire never fell, and took over the world. McCoy does not understand why they all worship the Sun however, since, as he states (incorrectly), Ancient Rome “had no Sun worshippers,” as noted above.

Kirk also finds uncanny similarities in one of the culture’s leaders, Merikus the First Citizen of the Empire, to Captain Merrick of the ”Beagle” and believes they are one and the same. Kirk explains to some of the slaves that he wants to meet this Merikus. Flavius then offers to help and leads Kirk to Rome; the capital city. The landing team puts on slaves’ uniforms, (grey tee-shirts with a chain symbol on the chest), and tries to sneak into the city. Along the way, Flavius explains how he was once the greatest gladiator until he too heard the words of the Sun. The way of the Sun involves a bond of brotherhood and a commitment to peace; it was hard for a fighter to accept, but “the words were true.”

They are soon captured by Roman guards (who appear like a police state riot squad), and are placed into the slave pens. Kirk asks Flavius about the culture’s institution of slavery. He discovers that a slave who performs well earns health benefits and if he survives long enough, is also compensated in the end with retirement benefits and prestige. McCoy and Spock get into another argument about logic and Flavius asks if the two are enemies. Kirk replies “I’m not sure they’re sure.” Kirk asks Flavius how long ago the slaves started worshipping the Sun and Flavius says as long ago as the founding of the empire.

Later, the landing party makes an escape attempt while the guards lead them to meet Merikus. Merikus, however, has anticipated their escape and has forces waiting to apprehend them. Once again, the party is taken prisoner and they stand before Merikus and the Proconsul Claudius Marcus who dismiss the guards and invite the landing team to sit and talk in private.

There, Merikus acknowledges that he is Captain Merrick. He explains his ship was severely damaged in a meteor shower and he stopped at 892 IV for repairs. When he beamed down, he met Claudius Marcus who demanded that word of the planet’s culture not be divulged to the Federation for risk of cultural contamination. Merrick decided to stay and put whatever crewmen who refused to remain behind into the gladiatorial pits where they would certainly be killed. Merrick then informs Kirk that word of the planet’s society must not leak off the world, and that the ”Enterprise” crew must also remain behind. He tells Kirk to order the crew to abandon the ship and integrate into Magna Roma’s culture.

Although he is threatened at gunpoint by armed guards, Kirk refuses Merrick’s demands and instead he tells Mr. Scott “condition green” on the communicator; this is a code-phrase indicating the sender is in trouble, but that the recipient must not attempt a rescue. Angered, Marcus sends Spock and McCoy into the arena for Kirk’s defiance.

Spock and McCoy must face off against Flavius and another gladiator, Achilles, under a set of studio lights, television cameras, and an obviously fake backdrop of a Roman combat arena. The whole scene looks more like a violent game show. The battle begins as Spock quickly overpowers his opponent, and when McCoy is in trouble, Spock nerve-pinches his opponent ending the fight to a hail of boos and hisses from a pre-recorded “crowd”. Spock and McCoy are taken back to the slave pens and Kirk is taken to stand execution which will be televised live.

Kirk goes to his room where a woman, Drusilla, is waiting for him and says she is his slave. Elsewhere, Spock and McCoy are placed in another cell. McCoy tries to thank Spock for saving him in the arena, but Spock shrugs him off. McCoy tells Spock he really does care, but is just afraid to show it. Kirk meanwhile, eats and talks with Drusilla and then goes to bed with her. Marcus later explains that he arranged it all because he respects Kirk as a real man, equal to the Romans, and wanted him to enjoy his last hours as a man.

In the meantime, Mr. Scott works on a way to disrupt power and communications on the planet while obeying the Prime Directive not to interfere with a planet’s society. He blacks out the city just before Kirk’s execution. In the diversion, Kirk frees Spock and McCoy but is soon captured again. Merrick however, does something unexpected, and radios the ”Enterprise” to have Kirk and his party beamed back. Before he can complete the message, Marcus stabs him for his treachery. Scotty understands the message and the landing party dematerializes just as they face a hail of machine gun fire.

Back on the ship, Kirk commends Scotty. Spock again expresses to Kirk and McCoy his failure to comprehend why Sun worshipping Romans seemed to adhere to a concept of peace; Spock says it is illogical. In most societies sun worship is a primitive religion of superstition, with no philosophy of peace behind it. Uhura has the answer. She has been monitoring radio transmissions from the planet and informs them that the Empire’s spokesman has tried to ridicule the belief of these worshippers but has utterly failed. When Kirk, Spock and McCoy remain uncomprehending she continues, “Don’t you understand> It’s not the sun up in the sky. It’s the Son of God.”

Kirk, Spock and McCoy now realize that this is “the time of … visitation” (Luke 19:44). The Triune God has entered this planet’s history through another Incarnation to redeem the inhabitants. Kirk replies with a note of jubilant humility: “Caesar … and Christ; they had them both. And the Word is spreading only now.”

McCoy notes that the philosophy of total love and total brotherhood will replace the planet’s philosophy of war. Spock says that it will take place in their 20th century. Noting the continued parallels of this planet’s history to that of the Earth, Kirk remarks, “Wouldn’t that be something to watch. To see it happen – all over again.”

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Bread and Circuses (Star Trek: The Original Series), under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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The hybrid lights also use artificial lighting which is mixed with the naturalk sunlight beamed in down the fiber optic chord. Photosensors focus on how much light needs to be generated to add to the natural light in order to keep a room illuminated at a constant brightness. When the sun is blocked by clouds around five percent of its sunlight requirement will need to be added. Hybrid Solar Lighting systems should be used in rooms with direct roof access.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Hybrid solar lighting, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Introduction

Wonder Woman’s younger sister Wonder Girl made her first appearance in ”The Brave and the Bold” #60 (July 1965) as a member of a “junior Justice League” called the Teen Titans, consisting of Robin, Kid Flash, and Aqualad (the sidekicks of Batman, The Flash, and Aquaman, respectively). After next being featured in ”Showcase” #59 (December 1965), the Teen Titans were spun off into their own series with ”Teen Titans” #1, cover-dated February 1966.

Wonder Girl’s origin as a non-Amazon orphan, rescued by Wonder Woman from an apartment building fire, is established in ”Teen Titans” (vol. 1) #22 (August 1969). Unable to find any parents or family, Wonder Woman had brought the child to Paradise Island, where she had eventually been given Amazon powers by Paula Von Gunther’s Purple Ray. Back in 1969, Wonder Girl dons a new, all-red bodysuit-style costume, lets her hair fall loose, and — since thus far she has been called only Wonder Girl or “Wonder Chick” by her teammates — adopts the secret identity Donna Troy.

Donna remains with the Teen Titans until the series’ cancellation with issue #43 in February 1973. She is still part of the team when the comic picks up again with #44 in November 1976. ”Teen Titans” is canceled again in February 1978 with issue #53, with Donna and the others — no longer “teens” — going their separate ways.

1980s revival

Marv Wolfman and George Pérez revived the series yet again in 1980 as ”The New Teen Titans”, with original members Wonder Girl, Robin, and Kid Flash joined by new heroes. Donna is romantically involved with slightly older professor Terry Long, but along the way is put under the romantic spell of Hyperion, one of the Titans of Myth.

Donna’s origin is expanded in the January 1984 tale, “Who is Donna Troy?” Robin investigates the events surrounding the fire from which his old friend had been rescued as a toddler, discovering that Donna’s birth mother was Dorothy Hinckley, a dying unwed teen who had given her up for adoption. After Donna’s adoptive father Carl Stacey had been killed in a work-related accident, her adoptive mother Fay Stacey gave her up for adoption again, unable to raise the toddler because of mounting expenses. With Robin’s help, Donna is reunited with Fay, who had married Hank Evans and given birth to two additional children, Cindy and Jerry. Donna marries Terry Long in a huge, lavish ceremony in ”Tales of the Teen Titans” #50 (February 1985).

Post-”Crisis”

The subsequent ”Crisis on Infinite Earths” miniseries (1985–1986) rewrote the history of many DC Comics characters; Wonder Woman’s own pre-”Crisis” history was written out of existence, and the character was reintroduced in ”Wonder Woman” (vol. 2) #1 (February 1987) as a new arrival from Themyscira (the former Paradise Island). With the character of Donna tied predominantly to the Titans, her origin was retconned to fit into the new continuity created by Wonder Woman’s relaunch, one severing her direct ties to the Amazons. In the storyline “Who Is Wonder Girl?” featured in ”The New Titans” #50-54 (December 1988-March 1989), the Titans of Myth enlist Donna’s aid against the murderous Sparta of Synriannaq. It is revealed that the Titan Rhea had rescued a young Donna from a fire; Donna and Sparta had then been part of a group of 12 orphans from around the universe who had been raised on New Cronus by these Titans as “Titan Seeds,” their eventual saviors. The Seeds had been given superhuman powers, and named after ancient Greek cities. Called “Troy,” Donna (like the others) had eventually been stripped of her memories of her time with the Titans of Myth, and reintroduced into humankind to await her destiny; Sparta had retained her memories, and the knowledge had eventually driven her mad. Killing her fellows Seeds to “collect” their powers and destroy the Titans of Myth, Sparta is ultimately defeated by Donna and the only other Seed left alive, Athyns of Karakkan. In ”The New Titans” #55 (June 1989), Donna changes her pseudonym from Wonder Girl to Troia and adopts a new costume incorporating mystical gifts from the Titans of Myth.

Lord Chaos

During the Titans Hunt storyline, Donna discovers she is pregnant; in the ”New Titans Annual” #7 (1991), a group calling themselves the Team Titans appears, intent on killing her. They come from a future in which Donna’s son is born with the full powers of a god and full awareness of them, which drives him mad. He instantly ages himself, kills his mother, and becomes a dictator known as Lord Chaos. The Team Titans travel back to the past to kill Donna before her son can be born. Donna eventually gives birth to Robert; to prevent him from becoming Lord Chaos, she sacrifices her powers and becomes a normal human.

Eventually, Donna rethinks her decision and asks the Titans of Myth to grant her powers again; her request is rejected. She then joins the Darkstars. During the Zero Hour crisis, her farm in New Jersey is destroyed and all the Team Titans are wiped out of existence except for Terra and Mirage. Her marriage in ruins, Donna loses custody of her son to her now ex-husband Terry. Donna rejoins the New Titans for a time, with her Darkstar suit giving her the ability to aid them. She dates Green Lantern for a while and retires from the Darkstars, leaving her powerless. Donna and Kyle break up immediately following the death of her son and ex-husband in a tragic car accident.

Magical duplicate

Her post-Crisis origin was updated in the late 1990s. This version had it that she was originally created by the Amazon sorceress Magala as a magical duplicate of the young Princess Diana of Themyscira (a nod to the original Wonder Girl) to be a playmate for Diana, who was previously the only child on the island. However, Donna was soon kidnapped by the Dark Angel (a World War II villainess and sworn enemy of Queen Hippolyta, Diana’s mother), who thought the girl was Diana.

Dark Angel cursed Donna to live endless variants of a life characterized by suffering, with her life being restarted and erased from the world’s memory when Donna was at her lowest. Even Donna would forget her past lives until the moment at which Dark Angel would arrive to restart her life, at which point she would immediately recall all of her past suffering. With the help of Wonder Woman, Hippolyta, and the third Flash (her former Titans teammate, Wally West), the only people who remembered the previous version, Donna was restored. Somehow, she also regained her powers, presumably because that was how Wally remembered her. Initially, she was concerned that she was not the “same” Donna, but an idealized form based on Wally’s memories. She has since accepted that this is not the case.

Shortly afterwards, the Titans gathered together to save their friend Cyborg. They came into conflict with the JLA, but they saved their friend. During this incident Donna was seemingly reunited with her son via virtual reality, but with the aid of Nightwing, realized it was not real. After that, the original five Teen Titans, including Troia, decided to reform the team. A subsequent battle with Dark Angel suggested her constant rewriting of Donna’s history involved Hypertime. It is not clear how this ties in with later revelations.

Realizing that Donna was created from a portion of Diana’s soul, Queen Hippolyta accepted Donna as a blood-related daughter and held a coronation on Themyscira to formally introduce Donna as the second princess of Paradise Island. This aspect brought Donna more in-line with her Pre-Crisis Themyscirian origins. After her coronation, Donna and Diana’s bond as sisters grew stronger. The two Amazons shared a high end apartment in New York City and Donna became more active in life on Themyscira. While the Amazons of Bana-Mighdall saw Diana as an official moderator between the Themyscirian Amazons and themselves, Donna made strides in becoming an accepted member of both tribes in their eyes. While aiding the Amazons, Donna also came into contact with the villain Angle Man who immediately became enamored with her. After their awkward yet flirtatious first meeting, a seriously wounded Angle Man later teleported himself to Donna seeking her help after being attacked by The Cheetah.

In a separate battle, Donna was apparently killed by a rogue Superman robot in the Titans/Young Justice crossover “Graduation Day”. However, in June 2005, DC Comics released ”The Return of Donna Troy”, a four-issue miniseries written by Phil Jimenez with art by José Luis García-López and George Pérez which marked the resurrection of Donna Troy and cleared up her multiple origins.

Revelations

Donna Troy has now discovered that like every other person after the Crisis on Infinite Earths, she is a merger of every alternate version of Donna Troy in the Multiverse. Unlike everyone else, Donna is the repository of knowledge of every alternate universe version of herself and remembers the original Multiverse. She learned that her counterpart on Earth-Two was saved by a firefighter and was raised in an orphanage, while her Earth-S counterpart died in the fire. She also discovered that her sworn enemy of the past, Dark Angel, was in fact the Donna Troy of Earth-Seven, saved from certain death by the Anti-Monitor, just like the Monitor had saved Harbinger. When the Multiverse was reconfigured in one single Universe, Dark Angel, who had somehow escaped the compression of every Donna Troy into one single person in the new Earth, sought to kill her (every life she forced her to relive was in fact an aspect of an alternate Donna) as a way to avoid the merging and remain the last one standing. When she was defeated, Donna became the real sum of every Donna Troy that existed on every Earth, a living key to the lost Multiverse.

Her role in Infinite Crisis is, at the end of ”The Return of Donna Troy”, fully stated: Donna had been reborn after her death at the hands of the Superman android. The Titans of Myth, realizing that she was the child who was destined to save them from some impending threat, brought her to New Cronus and implanted false memories within her mind to make her believe she was the original Goddess of the Moon and wife of Coeus. The Titans of Myth incited war between other worlds near New Cronus in order to gain new worshippers. They would then use the combined power of their collective faith to open a passageway into another reality, where they would be safe from destruction. Donna was another means to that end until she was found by the Titans and The Outsiders who restored her true memories. This was not without casualties, however. Sparta (who was restored to full mental health and stripped of the bulk of her power) had been made an officer in the Titans of Myth’s royal military. She was sacrificed by the Titans of Myth in an attempt to lay siege to the planet, Minosyss, which housed a Sun-Eater factory miles beneath its surface. Sparta’s death had inadvertently helped trigger Donna’s memory restoration. Athyns had also reappeared by this time, and aided the heroes and the Mynossian resistance in battling the Titans of Myth. It was then that Hyperion, the Titan of the Sun, revealed Donna’s true origins to her and ordered her to open a passageway into another reality by means of a dimensional nexus that once served as a gateway to the Multiverse itself, within the Sun-Eater factory’s core. This turned out to be the Titans of Myth’s real target. Donna did so, but fearing they would simply continue with their power-mad ambitions, she banished most of them into Tartarus. However, Hyperion and his wife, Thia, were warned of the deception at the last moment. Enraged, they turned on Donna, intending to kill her for the betrayal, but Coeus activated the Sun-Eater to save her and Arsenal. As the Sun-Eater began absorbing their vast solar energies, Hyperion and Thia tried to escape through the Nexus, but they were both torn apart by the combined forces of the Nexus’ dimensional pull and the Sun-Eater’s power. Coeus, who had learned humility and compassion from Donna, vowed to guard the gateway to make certain the other Titans of Myth remained imprisoned forever.

”Infinite Crisis” and ”52”

Donna returns to the now-barren New Cronus where she shares a joyful reunion with Wonder Woman. Donna, charged with the guardianship of the Universe Orb containing the Multiverse Chronicles collected by Harbinger, makes the startling discovery that an impending doom is facing the DC Universe, a doom she cannot avert alone. Leaving Nightwing behind on Earth, Donna brings several heroes to New Cronus, including Animal Man; Cyborg; Firestorm; Herald; Bumblebee; Red Tornado; Shift; Green Lanterns Alan Scott, Kyle Rayner, and Kilowog; Jade; Starfire; Supergirl and Captain Marvel Junior (in Outsiders 30). The heroes confront a mysterious and menacing rip in space caused by Alexander Luthor, Jr. (as a part of his plan), which has sparked an intergalactic war. Donna’s team contributes to the resolution of the conflict, but things take a dangerous turn when Alexander uses the inter-dimensional tear to recreate Earth-Two and, later, the Multiverse. Donna, along with Kyle Rayner (now called Ion), leads the team to attack Alexander Luthor through his space rift, giving Nightwing, Superboy, and Wonder Girl the time needed to destroy Alexander’s device, and save the two Supermen and Wonder Woman from being merged with their Earth-Three counterparts. Though most of the team vanishes when they attempt to leave via the portal opened by Mal Duncan and Adam Strange, she returns to Earth shortly after the Battle of Metropolis, and provides a “junior red-sun eater” to the Green Lantern Corps in which to imprison Superboy-Prime at the end of the battle on Mogo.

In the series ”52”, Cyborg, Herald, Alan Scott, Bumblebee, Hawkgirl, and Firestorm were all returned to Earth although gravely injured, while other heroes such as Supergirl, Starfire, Animal Man, and Adam Strange were lost in space. In the ”History of the DC Universe” backup feature, when Donna and the artificial intelligence in charge of Harbinger’s historical records finished her task of reviewing the DC Universe’s history, both the artificial intelligence and one of the new Monitors revealed to her that the current timeline has diverged from its rightful path, in which Donna herself, instead of Jade, should have sacrificed herself for Kyle Rayner.

During the World War III storyline, Donna goes into battle as Wonder Woman against a rampaging Black Adam.

“One Year Later”

During the “One Year Later” storyline event, Donna Troy has assumed the mantle of Wonder Woman after Diana stepped down following the Crisis, feeling the need to ‘find out who Diana is’. Donna wears a set of armor during her tenure as Wonder Woman, which includes the bracelet and star-field material used as part of her Titans regalia. Donna’s post-”Infinite Crisis” origin, which incorporates elements from her previous origins, is as follows: Donna was a magical twin of Diana created by the Amazon Magala and intended as a playmate for the lonely princess. Donna was later captured by Hippolyta’s enemy—Dark Angel who mistook her for Diana and placed her in suspended animation for several years. Years later, the grown up Diana, now Wonder Woman, eventually freed Donna and returned her to Themyscira. Donna was then trained by both the Amazons and the Titans of Myth. A few years later, Donna followed Diana into Man’s World and became Wonder Girl, wearing a costume based on Wonder Woman’s and helped form the Teen Titans. In her last adventure as Wonder Woman, Donna battles The Cheetah, Giganta, and Doctor Psycho. The trio attack Donna as a means of finding the then missing Diana. This eventually happens with the revelation that Circe is the mastermind behind the attacks and capture. After Donna is freed from Circe, she dons her old red Wonder Girl jumpsuit and aids her sister in battle telling Diana that she wants to give the Wonder Woman title back to her as she was never really comfortable using that name and would rather just be called Donna Troy.

Donna later works alongside ex-boyfriend Kyle Rayner, who has taken up the powers and title of Ion again. They go up against one of the Monitors who attempts to remove them from the newly rebuilt Multiverse, claiming the two are unwanted anomalies. Donna returns to Earth with Ion in time for him to say good-bye to his dying mother. After that event, Donna joins several former Teen Titans in the current team’s battle against Deathstroke and his Titans East team.

”Countdown to Final Crisis”

Donna attends Duela Dent’s funeral with the Teen Titans. She is confronted by Jason Todd, who seeks her out as a kindred spirit; the two cross paths while investigating Duela’s murder. Donna places her investigation on hold when the Amazons invade Washington, D.C. during the events depicted in ”Amazons Attack!” she travels to the city and confronts Hippolyta, advising her to end the invasion, and Hippolyta informs her that she will only consider a withdrawal if Donna will include Diana in their talks. Donna leaves to find her sister. Jason, who has followed Donna to Washington, tells her that the Monitors are responsible for Duela’s death. Donna and Jason are attacked by the Monitor’s warrior, Forerunner. They are saved by a benevolent Monitor, whom Jason calls Bob, and recruited to locate Ray Palmer. They soon learn that Palmer is hiding in the Multiverse.

The group is joined by Kyle Rayner; Jason and Kyle bicker during the journey and Donna is annoyed. Ray Palmer is located on Earth-51 and Bob attacks him, betraying the group. Donna and the others escape, and are caught in the crossfire when Monarch’s forces attack Earth-51. Donna is attacked by an alternate version of herself wearing a Wonder Girl costume, and overcomes her doppelganger and escapes. She takes the doppelganger’s costume, defeats one of Monarch’s lieutenants, and is acclaimed leader of an insect army by right of conquest. She leads the force of Myrmidons into the battle against Monarch’s forces. Superboy-Prime confronts Monarch, and the insect warriors are killed in the fallout.

Following the battle, Donna alone is able to discern a message directing the group to Apokolips, where the team are witness to its destruction as they first meet the other ”Countdown” characters, Jimmy Olsen, Forager, Pied Piper, Mary Marvel, Holly Robinson, Harley Quinn, Karate Kid, and Una. Witnessing Apokolips near-destruction at the hands of Brother Eye, the team are later sent to a reconstituted Earth-51 by Solomon, now a world similar to New Earth with the absence of the now much-expanded Challengers team. It is here that Karate Kid dies, and his Morticoccus virus transforms the world almost entirely to violent animal-human hybrids, losing Una to the feral natives and leaving that Earth’s Buddy Blank’s grandson as the Last Boy on Earth. Returned to New Earth by Jimmy Olsen via boom tube, Gothamites Harley, Holly, and Jason return home while Mary Marvel is once again corrupted by Darkseid who captures Jimmy, who holds the power of all the deceased New Gods. Freed from Darkseid’s control by Atom’s microscopic rewiring, Jimmy and Darkseid duke it out until Orion descends from the heavens (following his interrupted battle with the killer of the New Gods in ”Death of the New Gods”, and slays his father). In the aftermath of these events, the remaining party of Donna, Kyle, Ray, and Forager announce to the Monitors they will serve as body guards for the New Multiverse, and depart to places unknown.

”Justice League”

Returning to Earth after her adventures in the Multiverse with Kyle, Donna and other former and present Titans are targeted by a mysterious foe who is later revealed to be Trigon. The Titans reform to fend off Trigon’s assault and avenge the incapacitated Titans East team.

In ”Final Crisis” #5, Donna Troy has been turned into a Justifier. She, amongst other Justifiers, attacked the Switzerland Checkmate HQ. She tried to put the Justifier helmet onto Alan Scott before being knocked away by Hawkman.

The build-up to Donna’s recruitment begins when she volunteers to help Mikaal Tomas and Congorilla track down the supervillain Prometheus. She accompanies them to the JLA Watchtower alongside Starfire and Animal Man, only to discover that Red Arrow has been mutilated by Prometheus. During the ensuing battle, Donna is impaled through the wrists, but frees herself and takes down Prometheus after he defeats the rest of the team. Unfortunately, the villain destroys Star City via a teleportation device.

During the ”Blackest Night” crossover, Donna has a horrific encounter with her deceased son Robert and husband Terry, revived as undead beings by the Black Lantern Corps. She is bitten by Robert, becoming “infected” by the Black Lantern’s power. Donna, along with Superboy, Kid Flash, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern (Hal Jordan) and several other resurrected heroes, began to be targeted by Nekron, the being responsible for the Black Lanterns. Donna’s previous status as a deceased allowed for her to be transformed into a Black Lantern. However, unlike the other heroes, Donna was converted by being infected with the Black Lantern’s power rather than having a ring forced on her. Donna is freed by the power of white light.

In the aftermath of this, Donna is told by Wonder Woman that she could benefit from being a part of the JLA. To that end, she officially joins the team, even recruiting Cyborg, Dick Grayson (now Batman), and Starfire as well.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Donna Troy, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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* ”Schubumkehr” (1995–1996)

** A manifesto propagating ‘internet demarketing’ and deals with negative aspects of early net culture.

* ”Mackerel Fiddlers” (1996-)

** A radical anti-representation/anti-recording music movement that partially refers to Hakim Bey’s Temporary Autonomous Zone. To quote the manifesto: “We set value on developing a form of viral resistance by systematic infiltration of symphonic orchestras. A New Year’s Concert of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra (1984) could have been transformed by at least one Mackerel Fiddler and Austria’s image would have been ruined worldwide. [...] These days, self-production and ‘embarrassment sells’ have become the golden rules of media, be it radio, TV, or telegraph. Thus it is not only legitimate to be ashamed of ones activity as a Mackerel Fiddler, it is also thankworthy. Failure is beautiful! Disgrace is sunshine!”

* ”Exot” (1998)

** A tele-robot remotely controlled via a web-interface/chat forum. The robot was supported and operated by a big community. The robot’s basic structure was built out of remodeled Lego bricks and equipped with a Fisheye lens camera. The project was presented at art festivals and technology presentations.

* ”Soul Sale” (1998)

** A “spirituo-capitalist” booth where project members tried to buy the souls of passers-by for $5 per soul. A total of fifteen were purchased and registered. These souls are still being offered for sale to third parties with power of disposal. The group sees the project – beyond all philosophical discourses and argumentation seeking to prove the existence of god – in the classical sense of a market driven by supply and demand. The soul is a tradable commodity, a form of virtual capital.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Monochrom, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Salvador’s historical and cultural aspects were inherited by the miscigenation of such ethnic groups as Native-Indian, African, and European. This mixture can be seen in the religion, golden cuisine, cultural manifestations, and custom of Bahia’s people.

Literature

As the capital of colonial Brazil until 1763, Salvador was an important cultural centre since the 16th century, as reflected in the large number of prominent literary figures associated with colonial Salvador, usually educated in the religious schools of the convents of the city and in the University of Coimbra in Portugal. ”Frei Vicente do Salvador” (1564–1635), a Bahia-born Franciscan friar who studied in the Jesuit School of Salvador, was the author of the first book on Brazilian history written by a Brazil-born author.

Many religious orders came to the city, following its foundation: Franciscans, Benedictines and Carmelites. Subsequently to them are created the Third Orders, the Brotherhoods, and Fraternities, which were composed mainly of professional and social groups. The most prominent of these orders were the Terceira do Carmo Order and the de São Francisco Order, founded by white men, and the Nossa Senhora do Rosário and São Beneditino Brotherhoods, composed of black men. In many churches maintained by religious men, were housed the Santíssimo Sacramento brotherhoods.

Besides these organizations, the expansion of Catholicism in the city was consolidated through social care work. Santa Casa the Misericórdia was one oh the institution that did this kind of work, maintaining hospitals, shelters for the poor and the elderly, as well providing assistance to convicts and to those who would face death penalties. The convents, on their part, were cultural and religious formation centers, offering seminar coursed that often were attende by the lay.

Even with the present evolution, and the growth of Protestantism and other religions in the city, the Catholic faith remains as one of its most distinctive features, drawing a lot of people to its hundreds of churches. Some aspects, like the use of Portuguese in the Masses, the simplification of the liturgy, and the adoption of “pop” religious songs are key factors to the triumph of Catholicism. In the Nossa Senhora do Rosário dos Pretos Church, Masses are held in the Yorubá language, making use of African chants and typical clothes, which attract many people from the black communities.

Most enslaved Africans in Bahia were brought from Sub-Saharan Africa, especially the Yoruba-speaking nation (”Iorubá” or ”Nagô” in Portuguese) from present-day Nigeria. The enslaved were forced to convert to Roman Catholicism, but their original religion, Candomblé, has survived in spite of prohibitions and persecutions. The enslaved Africans managed to preserve their religion by attributing the names and characteristics of their Candomblé deities to Catholic saints with similar qualities.

Hence, as former pagan Christians once associated Pagan deities with the saints, enslaved Africans in Bahia transformed their faiths into a syncretic form of religion that still attempts to please both their own roots and the faith imposed by their masters and those caught in between both traditions. Thus, up to today, even nominal Catholics take part in Candomblé rituals in the ”terreiros” or “centros”. Candomblé is based on the cult of the Orishas (”Orixás”), like Obatala (”Oxalá”), father of humankind; Ogoun (”Ogum”), god of the war and iron; Yemanja (”Iemanjá”), goddess of the sea, rivers and lakes.

These religious entities have been syncretised with some Catholic entities. For instance, Salvador’s Feast of Bonfim, celebrated in January, is dedicated to both Our Lord of Bonfim (Jesus Christ) and Oxalá. Another important feast is the Feast de Yemanja every February 2, on the shores of the borough of Rio Vermelho in Salvador, on the day the church celebrates Our Lady of the Navigators. December 8, Immaculate Conception Day for Catholics, is also commonly dedicated to Yemanja’ with votive offerings made in the sea throughout the Brazilian coast.

Religious syncretism is defined as the combination of two or more creeds. In Brazil, especially in Bahia, it came up as a solution for the slaves who were prohibited of practicing their religion, so they pretended to be worshiping catholic saints while in reality they were venerating their own deities. Hence, associating an orixá (Candoblé deity) to a catholic was a strategy used by black people to maintain their beliefs and rituals alive, while they fooled their masters, making them believe that their devotion was to the catholic saints.

The lives of catholic saints and their own physical features, portrayed on sculptures and drawings, made the identification with the orixás easier. Salvador is a city where different ethnic and cultural aspects are mixed up, but religious syncretism remains as one of its most intriguing features. Its ancient churches are a proof of the power of Catholicism, which was brought by the Portuguese and forced upon Blacks and Indigenous.

Cuisine

The local cuisine, spicy and based on seafood (shrimp, fish), strongly relies on typically African ingredients and techniques, and is much appreciated throughout Brazil and internationally. The most typical ingredient is ”azeite-de-dendê”, an oil extracted from a palm tree (”Elaeis guineensis”) brought from West Africa to Brazil during colonial times.

Using the milky coconut juice, they prepared a variety of sea-food based dishes, such as Ensopados, Moquecas and Escabeche. The sugar cane bagasse was mixed with molasses and Rapadura, in the creation of coconut desserts like Cocada Branca and Preta. The remaining of the Portuguese Stew sauce was mixed with manioc flour to make a mush, which is a traditional Indian dish. In the markets of Salvador, it is possible to find stands selling typical dishes of the colonial era. In the Sete Portas Market, customers eat Mocotó on Friday nights since the 1940s, when the market was inaugurated. In the restaurants of Mercado Modelo (Model Market), Sarapatel, stews and several fried dishes are served regularly. In the São Joaquim, Santa Bárbara and São Miguel markets, there are stands selling typical food. They are also sold at stands located on the beaches, specially crab stews and oysters. The restaurants that sell typical dishes are located mostly along the coast and in Pelourinho. They prepare a wide variety of recipes that take palm tree oil.

Traditional dishes include ”caruru”, ”vatapá”, ”acarajé”, ”bobó-de-camarão”, ”moqueca” baiana, and ”abará”. Some of these dishes, like the acarajé and abará, are also used as offerings in Candomblé rituals. An acarajé is basically a deep-fried “bread” made from mashed beans from which the skins have been removed (reputedly feijão fradinho “black-eyed peas” but in reality almost always the less expensive brown beans so ubiquitous in Bahia). But Salvador is not only typical food. Other recipes created by the slaves were the Haussá Rice (rice and jerked beef cooked together), the Munguzá, used as offering to the Candomblé deity Oxalá (who is the father of all deities, according to the religion) pleased the matrons very much. So did the Bolinhos the Fubá, the Cuscuz (cornmeal) and the Mingau (porridge). According to Arany Santana, the Ipetê (used in the rituals to the deity Oxum) became the Shrimp Bobó (a kind of mush), and the Akará (honoring the deities Xangô and Iansã) became the world-famous Acarajé. Who comes here also has a large number of restaurants specialized on international cuisine. There also places that serve dishes from other states of Brazil, especially from Minas Gerais and the Northeast region.

Capoeira

Capoeira is a unique mix of dance and martial art of Afro-Brazilian origin, combining agile dance moves with unarmed combat techniques. Capoeira in Portuguese literally means “chicken coop”. The presence of capoeira in Brazil is directly connected to the importation of African slaves by the Portuguese, and Salvador is considered the centre of origin of the modern capoeira branches. The initial purpose of Capoeira’s emergence was to boost the slaves morale, remind them of their homeland through music and to defend themselves against aggression from their owners. The art of Capoeira is uniquely identified by swinging hips, arm stands, head butts and sweeping feet movements. The art required a good level of agility and core strength. In the first half of the 20th century, Salvador-born masters Mestre Bimba and Mestre Pastinha founded capoeira schools and helped standartise and popularise the art in Brazil and the world. The practice of Capoeira was banned in 1892, though in 1937 it was made legal.

Capoeira practices are accompanied by special music and songs. Musical instruments used in capoeira music include the berimbau, atabaque, pandeiro, agogô, and caxixi. Capoeira has moved from the senzalas and quilombos of Brazil to New York, Berlin, Australia, and just about every place in between.

Museums

The artistic, cultural and social heritage of Salvador is preserved in museums. From Museu de Arte da Bahia (MAB), which is the oldest in the State, to Museu Náutico, the newest, the first capital of Brazil preserve unique pieces of history. Every museum in the sate is an unusual journey. The collection have such an immense symbolical value that no financial figure could ever measure.

Even so, the importance of Salvador’s museums has drawn the interest of experts from Brazil and abroad. There we can find valuable pieces of religious art, ornamental items from the old manors and also objects that belonged to the old families and public figures of the state. The Arte Sacra and Abelardo Rodrigues museums are must, see programs. They both have the biggest sacra art collection in the country. Another obligatory tour is to Museu de Arte da Bahia.

Museu de Arte da Bahia has paintings, Chinese porcelain, furniture and sacra images from the 17th and 18th centuries. Museu Costa Pinto has private, owned items such as, pieces of art, crystal objects, furniture from the 18th and 19th centuries, tapestry, sacra pieces and Chinese porcelain. The golden jewelry and the 27 ornamental silver buckles are the most precious in the entire collection.

Another important museum is Museu da Cidade, where many items that help to preserve the heritage of old Salvador are kept. There we can find thematic objects that belonged to public personalities in the state like dolls, orixá statues and religious images. There is also an art gallery located inside of the museums. There is also Fundação Casa de Jorge Amado, with pictures, objects and the life’s stories of the author of memorable novels that portray old Bahia like, Gabriela – Cravo e Canela, Dona Flor e Seus Dois Maridos, O País do Carnaval and Tieta do Agreste.

Some churches and monasteries also have museums located in their premises. Examples of this are the Carmo da Misericórdia and São Bento Museums. After the renovation of the Forts, were created Museu Náutico, in Forte de Santo Antonio da Barra (Farol da Barra) and Museu da Comunicação, in Forte São Diogo. Other important museums that are scattered through Salvador are: Museu do Cacau, Museu geológico do Estado, Museu tempostal, Solar do Ferrão, Museu de Arte Antiga e Popular Henriqueta M Catharino, Museu Eugênio Teixeira Leal and Museu das Portas do Carmo.

Carnival/Carnaval

Although funk was embraced by many parts of Brazil, its sound would eventually become localized so the music would differ from city to city. This difference can be viewed with the funk scenes in Rio de Janeiro and Salvador. The music and the environment are all representative of the city where one listens to funk music.

For instance, the music played in Salvador at a Black Bahia Funk Ball is more American than its counterpart in Rio de Janeiro. Music material from Rio, which sells reasonably well around Rio, is poorly known in Salvador and, in any case, held to be inferior and “less modern” than funk sung in English. Another difference can be seen with the funk dancehalls. The Ball incorporates the entire setting, which entails the attire, the slang, the specific way of dancing break, the decoration, the organization of permanent dance groups. These dancehalls are a place for everyone to come together to have fun before the start of another work week. Even the dance rivalries are not true rivalries in the sense that the dance groups do not physically fight one another. The group members do all their battling on the dance floor, using their dance moves as their weapons to demonstrate their dance skill and superiority.

Theatre

The theatres of the city are: Castro Alves Theatre (TCA), Sala do Côro (mini Theatre in Castro Alves Theatre), IRDEB Theatre (TV Educativa), SENAC Theatre (Pelourinho), ICÉIA Theatre, Museu Eugênio Teixeira Leal Theatre (Pelourinho), Barra Theatre, Espaço Xisto Theatre, Maria Betânia Theatre, Jorge Amado Theatre, Diplomata Theatre, Sesi Rio Vermelho Theatre, Vila Velha Theatre, XVIII Theatre, ISBA Theatre, Santo Antônio Theatre, ACBEU Theatre, Anchieta Theatre, Nazaré Theatre, ICBA Theatre, Gamboa Theatre, Gregório de Mattos Theatre, Módulo Theatre, Miguel Santana Theatre, Cultural Theatre, Cine Casa do Comércio Theatre, Dias Gomes Theatre (Sindicato dos Comerciários), Plataforma Theatre.

Libraries

The first books that arrived in Salvador, were brought by the Jesuits, who came with Tomé de Souza. The first libraries or bookstores that appeared were under the control of the religious missionaries and were mostly composed of books on religion. Areas combining leisure and culture, Salvador’s libraries are an entertainment option for tourists and researchers. Some of these spaces have religious origins, some of them are temples of knowledge accessible only to a few, due to the fragility of the relics they contain.

The Benedictine, Carmelites, Franciscans and Capuchin orders have in Salvador, titles related to fundamental aspects of the state’s history, being important for a comprehensive view of the political, religious, moral and artistic formation of the city. Conversely to the restrictive religious libraries, the public libraries and the ones linked to institutions that give incentive to culture and information, provide the general public with a variety of titles. Salvador’s libraries are: Arquivo Histórico Municipal, Biblioteca Acbeu, Biblioteca Aloísio da França Rocha, Biblioteca Anísio Teixeira, Biblioteca da Fundação João Fernandes da Cunha, Biblioteca do Centro Cultural Prof. Ademar Cardoso, Biblioteca do Museu de Arte da Bahia, Biblioteca do Serviço Social do Comércio, Biblioteca Juracy Magalhães Júnior, Biblioteca Ministro Coqueijo Costa, Biblioteca Monteiro Lobato, Biblioteca Mosteiro de São Bento da Bahia, Biblioteca Pública do Estado da Bahia, Centro de Documentação Cultural sobre a Bahia, Gabinete Português de Leitura.

Handcraft

The handcraft legacy of Bahia using only raw materials (straw, leather, clay, wood, seashells and beads), the most rudimentary crafts are reasonably inexpensive. Other pieces are created with the use of metals like gold, silver, copper and brass. The most sophisticated ones are ornamented with precious and semi-precious gems. The craftsmen and women generally choose religion as the main theme of their work.

They portray the images of Catholic saints and Candomble deities on their pieces. The good luck charms such as the clenched fist, the four-leaf clover, the garlic and the famous Bonfim ribbons express the city’s religious syncretism. Nature is also portrayed on these pieces, reflecting the local wildlife. Music appears in the atabaque drums, the rain sticks, the water drums and the famous berimbau, along with other typical instruments.

Salvador holds an international reputation as a city where musical instruments that produce unique sounds are made. These instruments are frequently used by world-famous artists in their recording sessions. A place to see Salvador’s handcrafts production is Mercado Modelo, which is the biggest handcraft center in Latin America. Pieces can also be purchased at Instituto de Artesanato de Mauá and at Instituto do Patrimônio Artístico e Cultural (IPAC). These are organizations that promote typical art in Bahia. In Pelourinho there are a variety of stores selling souvenirs to visitors.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Salvador, Bahia, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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