Some, such as forward osmosis, are still on the drawing board now while others have attracted research funding. For example,

to offset the energy requirements of desalination, the U.S. government is working to develop practical solar desalination.

As an example of newer theoretical approaches for desalination, focusing specifically on maximizing energy efficiency and cost effectiveness, the [http://www.waterdesalination.com/theory.htm Passarell Process] may be considered.

Other approaches involve the use of geothermal energy. From an environmental and economic point of view, in most locations geothermal desalination can be preferable to using fossil groundwater or surface water for human needs, as in many regions the available surface and groundwater resources already have long been under severe stress.

Recent research in the U.S. indicates that nanotube membranes may prove to be extremely effective for water filtration and may produce a viable water desalination process that would require substantially less energy than reverse osmosis.

Another method being looked into for water desalination is the use of biomimetic membranes

On June 23, 2008, it was reported that Siemens Water Technologies had developed a new technology, based on applying electric field on seawater, that desalinates one cubic meter of water while using only 1.5 kWh of energy, which, according to the report, is one half the energy that other processes use.

Fresh water can also be produced by freezing seawater, as happens naturally in the polar regions, and is known as freeze-thaw desalination.

According to MSNBC, a report by Lux Research estimated that the worldwide desalinated water supply will triple between 2008 and 2020.

Low Temperature Thermal Desalination

Low Temperature Thermal Desalination (LTTD) takes advantage of the fact that water boils at low pressures, even as low as ambient temperature. The system uses vacuum pumps to create a low pressure, low-temperature environment in which water boils at a temperature gradient of 8 to 10 degrees C between two volumes of water. Cooling water is supplied from sea depths of as much as . This cold water is pumped through coils to condense the evaporated water vapor. The resulting condensate is purified water. The LTTD process may also take advantage of the temperature gradient available at power plants, where large quantities of warm waste water are discharged from the plant, reducing the energy input needed to create a temperature gradient.

LTTD was developed by India’s National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) from 2004. The world’s first LTTD plant was opened in 2005 at Kavaratti in the Lakshadweep islands. The plant’s capacity is 100,000 liters/day, at a capital cost of INR 50 million (€922,000). The plant uses deep water at a temperature of 7 to 15 degrees C. In 2007, NIOT opened an experimental floating LTTD plant off the coast of Chennai with a capacity of 1 million liters/day. A smaller plant was established in 2009 at the North Chennai Thermal Power Station to prove the LTTD application where power plant cooling water is available..

Thermo-ionic process

In October 2009, Saltworks Technologies, a Canadian firm, announced a process that uses solar or other thermal heat to drive an ionic current that empties all the sodium and chlorine ions from the water.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Desalination, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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According to the Earth Institute at Columbia University, [http://www.grestech.com/ Global Research Technologies, LLC] has demonstrated a prototype device capable of capturing 10 tons of carbon dioxide per square meter per year; a device of 10 meters by 10 meters would be able to capture 1,000 tons per year. It is estimated that 1 million such devices would be needed to capture the 1 billion tons per year stipulated in the conditions of the prize offered by Mr. Branson. The process uses proprietary sorbents to capture carbon dioxide molecules from free-flowing air and release those molecules as a pure stream of carbon dioxide for sequestration. According to GRT, one major advantage of this new technology is that it is not necessary to site the devices in immediate proximity to a major carbon source (such as a power station); for example, the CO2 emitted by traffic in Bangkok could be sequestered in Iceland by CO2 towers running on geothermal energy. Of course, the power source for the towers must not be a net CO2 producer, as this would partially offset the beneficial effects of the device. [http://www.physorg.com/news96732819.html Source: physorg.com]

Plastic trees

One approach that has been put forth attempts to catch carbon dioxide with artificial trees. The plastic trees are coated with a carbon-catching agent, allowing the carbon to be safely captured and sequestered, though the approach does have its limitations.

Energy Islands through OTEC

”This technology does not remove GHGs from the atmosphere.” In the article Energy Island: unlocking the potential of the ocean as a renewable power source Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion is discussed as a process that uses the temperature difference between surface and deep-sea water to generate electricity – and though it has an efficiency of just 1-3% – researchers believe an OTEC power plant could deliver up to 250MW of clean power, equivalent to one eighth of a large nuclear power plant, or one quarter of an average fossil fuel power plant. Architect and engineer Dominic Michaelis and his son Alex, along with Trevor Cooper-Chadwick of Southampton University are developing the concept with plans of putting the theory to the test on an unprecedented scale by building a floating, hexagonal Energy Island that will harness energy from OTEC, as well as from winds, sea currents, waves, and the sun. The OTEC technology is something of a green dream; not only is it clean and renewable, but so are its by-products. By subjecting the steam to electrolysis, large quantities of hydrogen can be produced, paving the way for cheaper hydrogen fuel cells. And by using an Open-cycle OTEC – where low-pressure containers boil seawater and condense the steam elsewhere after passing it through the turbo-generator – large amounts of fresh water can be created. Energy Island is also packed to the brim with other renewable energy collectors, with wind, wave, current and solar sources providing a total of 73.75 MW.

Architect and engineer Dominic Michaelis estimates it would take a chain of 4-8 Energy Islands to achieve the production levels of a nuclear power plant. To replace nuclear power entirely, Michaelis estimates a chain of 3708 modules would be required, stretched over a total length of 1928 kilometres, and consuming a total square area of roughly 30 by 30 kilometres. To shoulder the entire global energy consumption, based on 2000 figures, 52 971 Energy Islands would be needed, occupying a total area of 111 x 111 kilometres – described on the Energy Island site as “a pin point in the oceans.”

(http://www.gizmag.com/energy-island-otec/8714/)

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Virgin Earth Challenge, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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The character has been shown to be energized by sources of evil in the human realm, such as the alien Dire Wraiths. Like other demons, Mephisto is symbiotically linked to, and considerably more powerful within, his own realm, and the character is able to transform the structure at will. Within it he has threatened multiple solar systems, and stalemated a nourished Galactus until the latter ran out of energy and threatened to consume it. If Mephisto’s physical form is destroyed, the character will regenerate and reform in his domain.

Mephisto is known for acquiring souls, but cannot subjugate the will of another being without the victim’s permission. This is usually some form of pact.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Mephisto (comics), under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Oxidative phosphorylation is the process of oxidizing nutrients to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Substrate-level phosphorylation forms ATP by the direct transfer of a phosphate group to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) from a reactive intermediate. Photophosphorylation uses solar energy to synthesize ATP.

Phosphorylation of sugars allows cells to accumulate sugars because the phosphate group prevents the molecules from diffusing back across their transporter.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Phosphate homeostasis, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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The Hornblower Hybrid was built by Alcatraz Cruises in 2008. It uses a combination of solar, wind and diesel power to operate. In addition, much of the interior is also made from recycled or LEED certified materials.

The Hornblower Hybrid is a catamaran, with a fully enclosed main deck, and covered roof deck. The vessel, which was previously a commercial diving boat, has undergone a retrofit, repower and refurbishment over the last several months in a Bayside Boatworks in Sausalito, CA. This vessel was designed and created in house and no grant or public money was used. The two lead engineers on the project were employees Cameron Clark and Keir Moorhead.

The Hornblower Hybrid uses power generated by two ten-foot-tall wind turbines and a photovoltaic solar array covering the awning on the top deck. That power is converted and stored in battery banks that then power the navigation tools, lighting and other electronics on board the vessel. Excess power is stored in the main propulsion battery banks.

In addition to solar panels and wind turbines, the Hornblower Hybrid also has Tier 2 marine diesel engines. These cleaner, fuel-efficient engines reduce the amount of diesel fuel used, emissions and overall carbon footprint. The customized drive system allows the captain to monitor the energy needs of the vessel and select the most efficient power sources. For example, when the boat is idle at the dock, the engines will shut off, and the motors will run off of energy stored in the battery banks.

http://www.alcatrazcruises.com/website/images/hybrid/photo-hybridfar.jpg

http://www.alcatrazcruises.com/website/images/hybrid/photo-hybridclose.jpg

The vessel also contains a number of other environmentally friendly materials. The carpeting contains post consumer recycled materials, is recyclable and meets the US Green Building Council LEED criteria for recycled content. A significant portion of the interior signage is printed on Plyboo, a composite material made from sustainable sources and containing no harmful chemicals. The countertops throughout the vessel are made by Vetrazzo from pieces of recycled vodka bottles. The lighting throughout the vessel is LED, which requires a fraction of the energy of standard bulbs and provide an equal or greater amount of illumination.

Alcatraz Cruises’ fleet already contains two of the greenest diesel-powered ferryboats on the Bay. Alcatraz Clipper and Alcatraz Flyer were recently repowered with the most fuel-efficient Tier 2 Marine engines available and use selective catalytic reduction units. This same technology will be used on two new commuter ferryboats in the Bay Area, scheduled to be in use in 2009.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Hornblower Hybrid, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Exxaro remains committed to the energy efficiency accord signed in 2005 and, by participating in the energy efficiency technical committee (facilitated by the National Business Initiative), is playing a leading role in industry collaboration with the DME and other government agencies.

Exxaro uses just under 1% of all the electricity generated by Eskom. In 2006, Exxaro produced 379 443 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) through the consumption of petrol and diesel and more than 1,5 million tonnes of CO2e from purchasing electricity from the Eskom grid. Establishing these quantities – and investigating ways to reduce them – was the first step towards reaching Exxaro’s 2015 goal of improving energy efficiency by 15%. In 2007, the group’s electricity bill was R256 million – 3% of total operating

expenses. This cost per tonne may increase significantly over the next four years purely as a result of tariff increases, which will be partially mitigated by the extensive energy efficiency initiatives being undertaken.

Mitigation and clean-energy opportunities

Exxaro has initiated a pre-feasibility study on two renewable energy projects with the potential of generating

250 – 400MW, in either wind or solar generation. The group is also progressing with a feasibility study on co-generation to produce some 200MW of electricity from waste energy such as furnace off-gas and waste heat at its own and at other organisations’ operations. The objective is to minimise energy waste, thus increasing energy efficiency dramatically. The carbon footprint of electricity from these sources is virtually zero and would reduce Exxaro’s carbon footprint.

Carbon disclosure project

As noted in the chief executive’s sustainable development message, Exxaro was recognised for its comprehensive response to climate change issues in the group’s first participation in the carbon disclosure project. This process assesses four issues surrounding climate change namely:

*Climate change risks and opportunities – identify strategic risks and opportunities and their implications

*Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions accounting – determine actual absolute GHG emissions

*Performance – against targets and plans to reduce GHG emissions

*Governance – determine responsibility and management approach to climate change.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Exxaro, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article Flame detection, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Solar heating is a style of building construction which uses the energy of summer or winter sunshine to provide an economic supply of primary or supplementary heat to a structure. The heat can be used for both space heating and water heating (see solar hot water). Solar heating design is divided into two groups:

* Passive solar heating relies on the design and structure of the house to collect heat. Passive solar building design must also consider the storage and distribution of heat, which may be accomplished passively, or use air ducting to draw heat actively to the foundation of the building for storage. One such design was measured lifting the temperature of a house to 24°C (74°F) on a partially sunny winter day (-7°C or 19°F), and it is claimed that the system provides passively for the bulk of the building’s heating. The home cost $125 per square foot (or 370 m2 at $1,351/m2), similar to the cost of a traditional new home.

* Active solar heating uses pumps to move air or a liquid from the solar collector into the building or storage area. One application, solar water heating, works in conjunction with an existing water heater, and is based on solar panels fitted to the roof. In contrast to photovoltaic panels which are used to generate electricity, solar water heating panels are cheaper to manufacture, and capture a much higher proportion of the sun’s energy.

Solar heating systems usually require a small supplementary backup heating system, either conventional or renewable.

Geothermal heating

Heat from the Earth, or geothermal – Geo (Earth) + thermal (heat) – energy can be and already is accessed by drilling water or steam wells in a process similar to drilling for oil. Geothermal energy is an enormous, underused heat and power resource that is clean (emits little or no greenhouse gases), reliable (average system availability of 95%), and homegrown (making populations less dependent on oil).

The earth absorbs the sun’s energy and stores it as heat underground. The temperature remains constant at a point of 42°F to 100°F all year round depending on where you live on earth. A geothermal heating system takes advantage of the consistent temperature found below the Earth’s surface and uses it to heat and cool buildings. The system is made up of a series of pipes installed underground, connected to pipes in a building. These pipes are filled with an environmentally friendly antifreeze, which is circulated by a pump. In the winter the fluid in the pipe absorbs the heat of the earth and uses it to heat the building. In the summer the fluid absorbs heat from the building and disposes of it in the earth.

Heat Pump

Heat pumps use work to move heat from one place to another, and can be used for both heating and air conditioning. Though capital intensive, heat pumps are economical to run and can be powered by renewable electricity. Two common types of heat pump are air-source heat pumps (ASHP) and ground-source heat pumps (GSHP), depending on whether heat is transferred from the air or from the ground. Air source heat pumps are not effective when the outside air temperature is lower than about -15 °C, while ground-source heat pumps are not affected. The efficiency of a heat pump is measured by the coefficient of performance (CoP): For every unit of electricity used to pump the heat, an air source heat pump generates 2.5 to 3 units of heat (i.e. it has a CoP of 2.5 to 3), whereas a GSHP generates 3 to 4 units of heat. Based on current fuel prices for the United Kingdom, assuming a CoP of 3-4, a GSHP can be a cheaper form of space heating than oil, LPG and electric storage heaters. It is however more expensive than mains gas unless the heat pump is linked to an interseasonal thermal store when the CoP can rise to 7 by extracting heat from warm ground .

Interseasonal heat transfer

Interseasonal Heat Transfer combines active solar collection to store surplus summer heat in thermal banks with GSHPs to extract it for space heating in winter. This reduces the “Lift” needed and doubles the CoP of the heat pump because the pump starts with warmth from the thermal bank in place of cold from the ground.

CoP and lift

The CoP increases as the temperature difference, or “Lift”, decreases between heat source and destination. The CoP can be maximized at design time by choosing a heating system requiring only a low final water temperature (e.g., underfloor heating), and by choosing a heat source with a high average temperature (e.g., the ground). Domestic hot water (DHW) and conventional radiators require high water temperatures, affecting the choice of heat pump technology. Low temperature radiators provide an alternative to conventional radiators.

Wood-pellet heating

Wood-pellet heating and other types of wood heating systems have achieved their greatest success in heating premises that are off the gas grid, typically being previously heated using heating oil or coal. Solid wood fuel requires a large amount of dedicated storage space, and the specialized heating systems can be expensive (though grant schemes are available in many European countries to offset this capital cost.) Low fuel costs mean that wood fuelled heating in Europe is frequently able to achieve a payback period of less than 3 to 5 years. Because of the large fuel storage requirement wood fuel can be less attractive in urban residential scenarios, or for premises connected to the gas grid (though rising gas prices and uncertainty of supply mean that wood fuel is becoming more competitive.)

Wood-stove heating

Burning wood fuel in an open fire is both extremely inefficient (0-20%) and polluting due to low temperature partial combustion. In the same way that a drafty building loses heat through loss of warm air through poor sealing, an open fire is responsible for large heat losses by drawing very large volumes of warm air out of the building.

However modern wood stove designs allow for extremely efficient combustion and then heat extraction. In the United States, all new wood stoves are certified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and burn cleaner and more efficiently (the overall efficiency is 60-80%) and draw only small volumes of warm air from the building. High efficiency stoves meet the following design criteria:

* Well sealed and precisely calibrated to draw a low yet sufficient volume of air. Air-flow restriction is critical; a lower inflow of cold air cools the furnace less (a higher temperature is thus achieved). It also allows greater time for extraction of heat from the exhaust gas, and draws less heat from the building.

* The furnace must be well insulated to increase combustion temperature, and thus completeness.

* A well insulated furnace radiates little heat. Thus heat must be extracted instead from the exhaust gas duct. Heat absorption efficiencies are higher when the heat-exchange duct is longer, and when the flow of exhaust gas is slower.

* In many designs, the heat-exchange duct is built of a very large mass of heat-absorbing brick or stone. This design causes the absorbed heat to be emitted over a longer period – typically a day.

Renewable natural gas

Renewable natural gas is defined as gas obtained from biomass which is upgraded to a quality similar to natural gas. By upgrading the quality to that of natural gas, it becomes possible to distribute the gas to customers via the existing gas grid. According to the Energy research Centre of the Netherlands, renewable natural gas is ‘cheaper than alternatives where biomass is used in a combined heat and power plant or local combustion plant’. Energy unit costs are lowered through ‘favourable scale and operating hours’, and end-user capital costs eliminated through distribution via the existing gas grid.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Renewable heat, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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Berg argues that the movement of stars, planets, comets and asteroids through space affects the solar magnetic field; this in turn affects the geomagnetic field influencing collective and individual electro/chemical/ biological systems. Human bio-resonant systems are able to tune into particular astro-resonant cycles. When constructing charts he uses dimension z in addition to the x and y coordinates which form the geometric patterns. The z coordinate is allocated an energy value of varying strength.

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Walter Berg, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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The crux of Samael Aun Weor’s teachings is what he calls “white sexual magic”, the paramount tenet of which is to conclude the act without orgasm or ejaculation from either the man or woman. Thus, instead of the sexual energy being released in a spasm, this energy undergoes sexual transmutation via willpower and the sacrifice of desire. According to Weor, the magnetic induction produced by crossing the active (phallus) and passive (uterus) creative organs causes lunar, solar and akashic currents to flow through the Brahmanic cord (the ida, pingala and sushumna nadis respectively) of the couple. Weor says that this current then provides an active connection between the magnetic center at the root of the nose (the pineal gland, Ajna chakra) and the solar and lunar principles located within the seminal system at the muladhara chakra. The transmuted energy, through willpower, is populated by what Weor says are “billions of christic atoms” that when rising meet the pure akasa of the triune Brahmanic cord, igniting it, and through many years of work this causes the ascent of the kundalini through the thirty-three chambers or degrees of the spinal medulla.

Weor says that along with the ascent of the kundalini, the crystallization of the “Solar Bodies” are formed due to the transmutation which occurs through white sexual magic. Weor says that the solar bodies are the four aspects of the sacred merkabah of Arcanum Seven. In sum, Weor describes the solar bodies as the christic vehicles of emotion, mind and will.

Weor says that because sexuality is both a creator and destroyer, à la Shiva-Shakti, through sexual magic he indicates that one can eliminate any previously comprehended psychological defect. In other words, Weor says that through sexual magic the radical removal of the egocentric vehicles can be achieved – which he says are the animalistic or inferior vehicles of emotion, mind, and will related to one’s evolutive animal transmigrations prior to reaching the humanoid state. Thus, through the death of the ego and the birth of the solar bodies, Weor states that one can be elevated to the angelic state and beyond.

Weor also states that when the orgasm is reached the christic atoms are expelled and replaced, via genital orgasmic contraction, with what he believed were impure “atoms” of fornication. When, through willpower the akashic current meets the “atoms of fornication”, Weor said, that instead of rising the energy is rejected by the divine triad (atman-buddhi-manas) and is forced downward into the atomic infernos of the human being, forming the “tail of satan”, (the kundabuffer, or negatively polarized kundalini). Weor says that the repetition of orgasm over time divorces the divine triad from the inferior “quaternary” (physical, vital, astral and mental bodies) through the severing of the antakarana. This brings about, according to Weor, “the fallen Bodhisattva”, “the Fall of Lucifer” as described by the author Dante, or what amounts to the same thing: the Fall of Man. Weor refers to any type of sexual magic that uses the orgasm for spiritual or magical purposes as “black sexual magic”, and he believed that those who perform it are black magicians who acquire negative powers.

==Notes and references

Adapted from the Wikipedia article Sex magic, under the G. N. U. Free Documentation License. Please also see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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